Testing the validity and reliability of the doping willingness in sport scale.

Although research investigating doping in sport is burgeoning, there is still a lack of proxy measures of doping behavior that have undergone extensive psychometric testing. To address this issue, we modified a previously used measure of doping willingness in sport and tested aspects of validity and reliability across four studies. In Study 1, we provided support for the face and content validity of the items, and then found support for the factor structure of the scale in a sample of athletes (N = 205) using confirmatory factor analysis. In Study 2, we collected data from an independent sample of athletes (N = 236) to provide further evidence for the factor structure of the scale using confirmatory factor analysis as well as provided evidence for concurrent and discriminant validity. In Study 3, a further independent sample of athletes (N = 144) completed the scale and provided support for discriminant and predictive validity of the scale. In Study 4, we collected data from a further independent sample (N = 74) to provide support for the test-retest reliability, and stability of items. Lastly, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the samples across Studies 3 and 4, and the composite sample across all four studies which provided further support for the factor structure of the final 8-item scale. Taken together, these findings provide psychometric support for the scale to be used to measure the willingness of athletes to use banned substances to help facilitate future research investigating doping in sport.

A Multistudy Cross-Sectional and Experimental Examination Into the Interactive Effects of Moral Identity and Moral Disengagement on Doping.

Moral identity and moral disengagement have been linked with doping likelihood. However, experiments testing the temporal direction of these relationships are absent. The authors conducted one cross-sectional and two experimental studies investigating the conjunctive effects of moral identity and moral disengagement on doping likelihood (or intention). Dispositional moral identity was inversely (marginally), and doping moral disengagement, positively, associated with doping intention (Study 1). Manipulating situations to amplify opportunities for moral disengagement increased doping likelihood via anticipated guilt (Study 2). Moreover, dispositional moral identity (Study 2) and inducing moral identity (Study 3) were linked with lower doping likelihood and attenuated the relationship between doping moral disengagement and doping likelihood. However, the suppressing effect of moral identity on doping likelihood was overridden when opportunities for moral disengagement were amplified. These findings support multifaceted antidoping efforts, which include simultaneously enhancing athlete moral identity and personal responsibility alongside reducing social opportunities for moral disengagement.

Effects of antisocial behaviour on opponent's anger, attention, and performance.

Sledging, which is verbal antisocial behaviour in sport, aims to impair an opponent's performance. Previously, variations in performance have been attributed to changes in emotion and cognition. To improve our understanding of sledging, the current experiment examined the effects of verbal antisocial behaviour on anger, attention and performance. Participants performed a competitive basketball free-throw shooting task under insult (verbal behaviour designed to offend and upset the performer), distraction (verbal behaviour designed to draw attention away from the task), or control (neutral verbal behaviour) conditions. Performance was assessed by the number of successful baskets and a points-based scoring system, while anger and attention were measured post-task. The insult condition provoked more anger than the control and distraction conditions, whereas the insult and distraction conditions increased distraction and reduced self-focus compared to the control condition. Although verbal antisocial behaviour had no overall direct effect on performance, mediation analysis showed that anger indirectly impaired performance via distraction. Implications for the antisocial behaviour-performance relationship are discussed.

Empathy Inhibits Aggression in Competition: The Role of Provocation, Emotion, and Gender.

Although the empathy-aggression relationship has been well documented, research has yet to establish whether emotions mediate and gender moderates this relationship in athletes, under conditions of low and high provocation. In this experiment, we assigned team-sport athletes to either a high (n = 40) or a low (n = 40) empathy group, and asked them to compete in a reaction-time task against a (fictitious) opponent, under conditions of low and high provocation. Empathy reduced aggression (i.e., intensity of electrical shock administered to the opponent) at low provocation in men, and at both low and high provocation in women. Guilt mediated the effect of empathy on aggression at low provocation in men; anger did not mediate any effects of empathy on aggression. Our findings indicate that the inhibitory effect of empathy on aggression and the mediating role of guilt are moderated by provocation and gender.

Linking Perfectionism with Moral Behaviors in Sport: The Mediating Role of Burnout and Moral Disengagement.

Purpose: Research has identified a range of intrapersonal variables associated with moral behaviors in sport. However, research investigating how perfectionism and burnout are associated with prosocial and antisocial behavior toward teammates and opponents in sport has received scant attention. In the present study, we address this issue by examining whether perfectionism is associated with prosocial and antisocial behavior in sport directly and indirectly via burnout and moral disengagement. Method: A total of 312 team sport players completed validated measures for each variable. Results: Path analyses revealed that perfectionistic concerns had a negative relationship with prosocial behavior toward teammates and an indirect positive association with antisocial behavior toward both teammates and opponents via being positively associated with burnout, which in turn, was positively associated with moral disengagement. In contrast, perfectionistic strivings had a positive association with prosocial behavior toward teammates, and an indirect positive association with antisocial behavior toward teammates and opponents via moral disengagement. Conclusion: Our findings offer new insights into how perfectionism and burnout are associated with prosocial and antisocial behavior in sport, as well as highlight the need to consider perfectionistic tendencies and approaches to help reduce burnout and moral disengagement in the regulation of antisocial behavior in sport.

The Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviour in Sport Scale: further evidence for construct validity and reliability.

The purpose of this research was to provide further evidence for the construct validity (i.e., convergent, concurrent, and discriminant validity) of the Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviour in Sport Scale (PABSS), an instrument that has four subscales measuring prosocial and antisocial behaviour toward teammates and opponents. We also investigated test-retest reliability and stability of the PABSS. We conducted three studies using athletes from a variety of team sports. In Study 1, participants (N = 129) completed the PABSS and measures of physical and verbal aggression, hostility, anger, moral identity, and empathy; a sub-sample (n = 111) also completed the PABSS one week later. In Study 2, in addition to the PABSS, participants (N = 89) completed measures of competitive aggressiveness and anger, moral attitudes, moral disengagement, goal orientation, and anxiety. In Study 3, participants (N = 307) completed the PABSS and a measure of social goals. Across the three studies, the four subscales evidenced the hypothesised relationships with a number of variables. Correlations were large between the two antisocial behaviours and small between the two prosocial behaviours. Overall, the findings supported the convergent, concurrent, and discriminant validity of the scale, provided evidence for its test-retest reliability and stability, and suggest that the instrument is a valid and reliable measure of prosocial and antisocial behaviour in sport.

Perfectionism and doping willingness in athletes: The mediating role of moral disengagement.

Although trait perfectionism has been related to doping attitudes in athletes, research investigating variables that could account for relationships between perfectionism and doping outcomes has received scant attention. Consequently, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether perfectionism was related to doping willingness directly, and indirectly via moral disengagement. We recruited a sample of 204 student athletes (M age = 19.12 years, SD = 1.17, n = 81 females - 39.70%) who completed measures of perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, doping moral disengagement, and doping willingness. Multiple regression analyses revealed a significant positive relationship between perfectionistic concerns and doping willingness (ß = .13, p < .05) and a nonsignificant relationship between perfectionistic strivings and doping willingness (ß = -.01, p > .05). Moreover, bias-corrected bootstrapped indirect effects revealed that doping moral disengagement mediated the relationship between perfectionistic concerns and doping willingness (ab = .12; 95% CI = 0.02 to 0.21). The findings suggest that the relationship between perfectionistic concerns and doping extends beyond attitudes - to doping willingness - and the propensity to morally disengage explains why this is the case.

Put yourself in their boots: effects of empathy on emotion and aggression.

Aggression has been linked to empathy and emotions (e.g., guilt) in cross-sectional studies. The purpose of this experiment was to examine the effects of empathy on emotional reactions to aggression and the role of guilt in the empathy-aggression relationship. Seventy-one undergraduate sport and exercise science students with a mean age of 19.56 (SD = 1.94) years were randomly assigned to either a high- or a low-empathy group. We experimentally manipulated empathy using perspective taking instructions and examined the following: (a) participants' emotional reactions to images of aggressive acts; (b) their reported likelihood to aggress in a hypothetical sport situation; and (c) the extent to which they anticipated feeling guilt if they were to engage in an aggressive act. Participants in the high-empathy group experienced stronger negative emotional reactions to images of aggressive acts and reported lower likelihood to aggress than did those in the low-empathy group. Anticipated guilt partially mediated the effects of empathy on reported likelihood to aggress. Our findings suggest that empathy may help reduce aggressive behavior and highlight the potential mediating role of guilt.

The effect of exercise-induced fatigue and heat exposure on soccer-specific decision-making during high-intensity intermittent exercise.

Global warming and the globalisation of sport has increased the prevalence of sports competitions being held in hot environments. However, there is currently limited research investigating the impact of the heat on soccer-specific decision-making skills during exercise reflective of the physical demands of match-play. Therefore, the effects of heat exposure on physical and soccer-specific decision-making performance, biological markers (i.e., metanephrines), appraisal (i.e., challenge vs. threat) and affective states, during prolonged high-intensity intermittent exercise were investigated. Nine well-trained male soccer players completed a 92-min cycling intermittent sprint protocol (CISP), whilst simultaneously responding to a series of soccer-specific decision-making trials at various time points, in two temperature conditions: hot (32°C, 50%rh) and temperate (18°C, 50%rh). Results showed that decision-making score (p = .030) was impaired in the hot compared to the temperate condition. There was a reduced workload in the second half during the hot condition (p = .016), which coincided with a heightened threat state (p = .007) and more unpleasant feelings (p = .008) experienced in the hot, compared to temperate, condition. Furthermore, plasma normetanephrine (NMET) was higher at half-time (p = .012) and post-CISP (p ≤ .001). Also, plasma metanephrine (MET) was higher post-CISP (p = .009) in the hot compared to temperate condition, reflecting a heightened stress response. Our findings highlight the need for practitioners to consider the detrimental effects heat exposure can have on both physical and decision-making performance when looking to facilitate performance in hot conditions.

The Effects of Heat Exposure During Intermittent Exercise on Physical and Cognitive Performance Among Team Sport Athletes.

This study investigated the effects of heat exposure on physical and cognitive performance during an intermittent exercise protocol so as to reflect the incremental fatigue experienced during team sports. Twelve well-trained male team sport players completed an 80-minute cycling intermittent sprint protocol (CISP), alongside computerized vigilance and congruent (i.e., simple) and incongruent (i.e., complex) Stroop tasks of cognitive functioning, in two counterbalanced temperature conditions; hot (32°C[50%rh]) and control (18°C[50%rh]). Incongruent Stroop accuracy declined over time (p = .002), specifically in the second (Mdiff = -3.75, SD = 0.90%, p = .009) and third (Mdiff = -4.58, SD = 1.22%, p = .019) quarters compared to the first quarter of the CISP; but there were no differences between temperature conditions. Congruent Stroop reaction time (RT) was quicker in the second quarter of exercise in the hot condition (M = 561.99, SD = 112.93 ms) compared to the control condition (M=617.80, SD = 139.71 ms; p = .022), but no differences were found for congruent Stroop accuracy nor vigilance measures. Additionally, peak power output was lower during the third quarter of the CISP in the hot condition (M = 861.31, SD = 105.20 W) compared to the control condition (M = 900.68, SD = 114.84 W; p < .001). Plasma normetanephrine and metanephrine concentrations increased from pre- to post-CISP (Mdiff = +616.90, SD = 306.99, p < .001; and Mdiff = +151.23, SD = 130.32, p = .002, respectively), with a marginal interaction suggesting a higher normetanephrine increase from pre- to post-CISP in the hot versus the control condition (p = .070). Our findings suggest that accuracy for more complex decisions suffered during prolonged high-intensity intermittent exercise, perhaps due to exercise-induced catecholamine increases. Athletes may have also reduced physical effort under increased heat exposure, indicating how cognitive performance may be sustained in physically demanding environments.

An Increase in Fat-Free Mass is Associated with Higher Appetite and Energy Intake in Older Adults: A Randomised Control Trial.

Cross-sectional studies in younger adults have demonstrated a positive association between energy intake (EI) and fat-free mass (FFM), with this relationship seemingly mediated by resting metabolic rate (RMR). Establishing a causal effect longitudinally would be prudent in older adults suffering from loss of appetite. We investigated the effects of FFM on RMR, appetite and EI in 39 healthy older adults (age: 66 ± 4 years, BMI: 25.1 ± 3.5 kg∙m2) assigned to either 12-week resistance training + protein supplementation group (RT + PRO) or control group (CON). Body composition, subjective appetite, leptin, insulin, RMR and laboratory-measured ad libitum EI were measured at baseline, weeks 6 and 12 of the intervention, while daily EI at baseline and week 12. FFM (+1.2 kg; p = 0.002), postprandial subjective appetite (+8 mm; p = 0.027), ad libitum EI (+119 kcal; p = 0.012) and daily EI (+133 kcal; p = 0.010) increased from baseline to week 12 in the RT + PRO. RMR, fasted subjective appetite, leptin and insulin concentrations remained unchanged (all p > 0.05). The increases ad libitum EI correlated with increases in FFM (r = 0.527, p = 0.001), with 54% of the change in EI attributed to FFM changes. In conclusion, FFM increases were associated with an increased ad libitum EI and postprandial appetite in older adults.

Moral behavior in sport.

In this review paper, we provide an overview of recent research on prosocial and antisocial behaviors, in the context of sport, focusing mainly on antecedents and consequences of these behaviors. Motivational variables such as task orientation, mastery climate, autonomous motivation, and autonomy supportive climate are likely to promote prosocial behavior, whereas ego orientation, performance climate, controlled motivation, and controlling climate may lead to antisocial behavior. The effects of some motivational variables (i.e., controlled motivation and controlling climate) on antisocial behavior may be mediated by moral disengagement, which has been consistently linked to antisocial behavior across a number of studies. Two moral variables, moral identity and empathy have been found to inhibit antisocial behavior, and their effects are due to anticipated guilt for acting antisocially. With respect to consequences of teammate behavior, some evidence suggests that prosocial behavior may enhance the recipient's enjoyment, effort, commitment, and performance, whereas antisocial behavior could lead to anger. Finally, the frequency of prosocial and antisocial behaviors varies as a function of context: Student athletes display more antisocial behavior towards their opponents compared to their fellow students but also more prosocial behavior towards their teammates than towards their fellow students. In sum, both motivational and moral variables predict prosocial and antisocial behaviors in sport, and these behaviors can have important consequences for the recipient.