Systemic Erysipelas Outbreak among Free-Ranging Bottlenose Dolphins, San Diego, California, USA, 2022.

We diagnosed fatal Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae sepsis in 3 stranded bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) during summer 2022, in San Diego, California, USA. The previously undetected disease in this relatively small, regional population of dolphins most likely indicates an environmental or biological change in the coastal ocean or organisms.

GENOTYPE IDENTIFICATION OF TOXOPLASMA GONDII IN MACROPODS FROM A ZOOLOGICAL PARK IN FLORIDA, USA.

There are limited reports of the genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii infecting captive macropods in North America. A novel genotype, ToxoDB PCR-RFLP genotype 263, was reported from six wallabies at a zoological facility in Virginia, USA, prompting an investigation into the genotypes from T. gondii strains infecting macropods at a zoological park in Florida, USA. Cardiac muscle and/or lung samples from an agile wallaby (Macropus agilis, n = 1), red kangaroos (Macropus rufus, n = 8), red-necked wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus, n = 1), and a tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii, n = 1) that died between 2014 and 2018 were collected. All 11 cases were confirmed to have died from systemic toxoplasmosis by histopathology and immunohistochemical staining. Multilocus PCR-RFLP genotyping of T. gondii was performed directly on tissue samples or on parasites isolated from myocardium by mouse bioassay. Two cases of toxoplasmosis were identified as the reported novel genotype, ToxoDB PCR-RFLP genotype 263, but no common source of exposure could be identified. Five cases were identified as genotype 2 (type III strain, haplogroup 3), and four cases were identified as genotype 216, which has been previously reported in North American wildlife. There were no overt differences in lesion severity or distribution related to genotype. These results suggest that the premise was contaminated with at least three genotypes of T. gondii causing systemic toxoplasmosis in macropods. The largest cluster of fatal toxoplasmosis in macropods in the study period occurred following severe rainfall flooding of the exhibit, suggesting the transmission of T. gondii by water and pointing out the importance of this transmission mechanism. In summary, our study revealed three T. gondii outbreaks that caused significant loss of macropods within 5 yr in a zoological facility in Florida. More studies are needed to understand transmission and prevention of toxoplasmosis in sensitive zoo animals.

RETROSPECTIVE EVALUATION OF HISTOPATHOLOGIC FINDINGS IN CAPTIVE GAZELLE SPECIES.

Capturing disease trends among different species has indisputable value to both veterinary clinicians and zoo managers for improving the welfare and management of zoo species. The causes of mortality for eight species of gazelle (addra gazelle, Nanger dama; dorcas gazelle, Gazella dorcas; Grant's gazelle, Nanger granti; sand gazelle, Gazella leptoceros; Saudi goitered gazelle, Gazella subgutturosa; Soemmerring's gazelle, Nanger soemmerringii; Thomson's gazelle, Eudorcas thomsonii; and Speke's gazelle, Gazella spekei) are presented from an 18-yr period (1996 2014). The leading cause of mortality for all species was trauma, followed by bronchopneumonia, and failure to thrive/maternal neglect. Nephritis and rumenitis/abomasitis/enteritis were common ancillary lesions across all species. On average, female gazelle lived twice as long as male gazelle, with an average overall adult survival time of 9.3 yr. Dorcas, Thomson's and addra gazelle females had the longest average survival time (10-13 yr). Calves up to 6 mo of age died most frequently from failure of passive transfer or maternal neglect. Thyroid carcinoma was frequently identified in Thomson's gazelle. Sand and Speke's gazelle frequently died from systemic amyloidosis, and Saudi goitered gazelle were more likely to have renal amyloidosis. Hematuria syndrome was the second most common cause of death in Grant's gazelle. The majority of lesions identified in this study that cause or contribute to mortality are preventable with appropriate management. Knowledge of disease trends in captive gazelle populations can help guide veterinary care, management decisions, and collection management planning.

HEALTH AND NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT OF FREE-RANGING EASTERN INDIGO SNAKES (DRYMARCHON COUPERI) IN GEORGIA, UNITED STATES.

Clinical pathology and nutritional parameters are useful in evaluating and monitoring threatened and endangered wildlife populations, but reference ranges for most snake species are lacking. From 2001 to 2005, health assessments were performed on 58 eastern indigo snakes (EIS) (Drymarchon couperi) captured in the wild in southeastern Georgia, United States. Health and nutritional assessments performed included hematology, serum biochemistry, fat-soluble vitamins, heavy metals, pesticide contaminants, parasitology, and surveys of other pathogens. Significant differences in total solids, packed cell volume, glucose, blood urea nitrogen, albumin : globulin ratio, amylase, triglycerides, and bile acids between males and females were observed. Additionally, there was a significant difference between liver and kidney concentrations for vitamins A and E. As previously noted in captive EIS, total Ca was elevated in comparison to concentrations reported in other snake species. Parasitism was a common finding in sampled EIS, but the overall health status of this free-ranging population appeared good. A winter-time dermatitis was found in most snakes, which resolved in the summer months. This study represents the first health and nutritional assessment of free-ranging EIS, and provides needed data to guide monitoring and conservation efforts.

Case descriptions of fibropapillomatosis in rehabilitating loggerhead sea turtles Caretta caretta in the southeastern USA.

Fibropapillomatosis (FP) is a debilitating neoplastic disease that affects all species of hard-shelled sea turtles, including loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta. FP can represent an important clinical concern in rehabilitating turtles, since managing these infectious lesions often requires special husbandry provisions including quarantine, and FP may affect clinical progression, extend rehabilitation duration, and complicate prognoses. Here we describe cases of rehabilitating loggerhead turtles with FP (designated FP+). Medical records of FP+ loggerhead cases from 3 sea turtle rehabilitation facilities in the southeastern USA were reviewed. Between 2001 and 2014, FP was observed in 8 of 818 rehabilitating loggerhead turtles (0.98% overall prevalence in admitted patients). FP+ loggerhead size classes represented were large juvenile (straight carapace length, SCL: 58.1-80 cm; n=7) and adult (SCL>87 cm; n=1). Three turtles presented with FP, and 5 developed tumors during rehabilitation within a range of 45 to 319 d. Sites of new tumor growth included the eyes, sites of trauma, neck, and glottis. FP+ turtles were scored as mildly (3/8), moderately (4/8), or heavily (1/8) afflicted. The mean total time in rehabilitation was 476±355 d (SD) (range: 52-1159 d). Six turtles were released without visible evidence of FP, 1 turtle was released with mild FP, and 1 turtle with internal FP was euthanized. Clinical decision-making for FP+ loggerhead patients can be aided by such information as time to tumor development, anatomic locations to monitor for new tumor growth, husbandry considerations, diagnostic and treatment options, and comparisons to FP in rehabilitating green turtles Chelonia mydas.

IL-21 receptor is required for the systemic accumulation of activated B and T lymphocytes in MRL/MpJ-Fas(lpr/lpr)/J mice.

MRL/MpJ-Fas(lpr/lpr)/J (MRL(lpr)) mice develop lupus-like disease manifestations in an IL-21-dependent manner. IL-21 is a pleiotropic cytokine that can influence the activation, differentiation, and expansion of B and T cell effector subsets. Notably, autoreactive CD4(+) T and B cells spontaneously accumulate in MRL(lpr) mice and mediate disease pathogenesis. We sought to identify the particular lymphocyte effector subsets regulated by IL-21 in the context of systemic autoimmunity and, thus, generated MRL(lpr) mice deficient in IL-21R (MRL(lpr).IL-21R(-/-)). Lymphadenopathy and splenomegaly, which are characteristic traits of the MRL(lpr) model were significantly reduced in the absence of IL-21R, suggesting that immune activation was likewise decreased. Indeed, spontaneous germinal center formation and plasma cell accumulation were absent in IL-21R-deficient MRL(lpr) mice. Correspondingly, we observed a significant reduction in autoantibody titers. Activated CD4(+) CD44(+) CD62L(lo) T cells also failed to accumulate, and CD4(+) Th cell differentiation was impaired, as evidenced by a significant reduction in CD4(+) T cells that produced the pronephritogenic cytokine IFN-γ. T extrafollicular helper cells are a recently described subset of activated CD4(+) T cells that function as the primary inducers of autoantibody production in MRL(lpr) mice. Importantly, we demonstrated that T extrafollicular helper cells are dependent on IL-21R for their generation. Together, our data highlighted the novel observation that IL-21 is a critical regulator of multiple pathogenic B and T cell effector subsets in MRL(lpr) mice.

Splenic marginal zone lymphoma in an Asian small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea).

Severe splenomegaly was found during routine examination of a clinically normal 7-yr-old male Asian small clawed otter. The spleen and three enlarged splenic lymph nodes were immediately removed. The spleen weighed 310 g (approximately 8% of body weight). The spleen and resected lymph nodes were diffusely infiltrated by coalescing sheets of neoplastic lymphocytes that occasionally surrounded remnants of preexisting lymphoid follicles. Immunohistochemical confirmation of B lymphocyte origin and microscopic pattern were consistent with primary splenic marginal zone lymphoma (MZL) with metastasis to the splenic lymph nodes. The otter received no additional treatment and survived for 16 mo following splenectomy. Necropsy confirmed metastasis to multiple abdominal and extra-abdominal lymph nodes, liver, and kidney, and renal failure related to glomerulosclerosis. The prolonged survival in this otter is typical for MZL, an indolent form of B-cell lymphosarcoma that spreads slowly to the abdominal and extra-abdominal lymph nodes.

Cloacolithiasis and intestinal lymphosarcoma in an African black-footed penguin (Spheniscus demersus).

A 13-yr-old male African black-footed penguin (Spheniscus demersus) presented thrice over 7 mo with gastrointestinal obstruction secondary to cloacolithiasis. Clinical signs consistently resolved with cloacolith removal and supportive care. However, 10 mo after initial presentation, it presented with similar signs, plus significant weight loss. No cloacolith was found, and it subsequently died. Significant gross findings included bilateral cecal masses, colonic perforation, and marked secondary coelomitis, multifocal tan to pale hepatic nodules, and pale kidneys with miliary white foci. Histopathologic diagnoses were intestinal lymphosarcoma with hepatic and renal metastases, secondary intestinal rupture, and subacute severe bacterial coelomitis. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first full report of either cloacolithiasis or lymphosarcoma in a penguin.

Cytosolic phospholipase A2α blockade abrogates disease during the tissue-damage effector phase of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by its action on APCs.

Cytosolic phospholipase A(2)α (cPLA(2)α) is the rate-limiting enzyme for release of arachidonic acid, which is converted primarily to PGs via the cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 pathways and to leukotrienes via the 5-lipoxygenase pathway. We used adoptive transfer and relapsing-remitting forms of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis, in two different strains of mice (SJL or C57BL/6) to demonstrate that blockade of cPLA(2)α with a highly specific small-molecule inhibitor during the tissue-damage effector phase abrogates the clinical manifestation of disease. Using the adoptive transfer model in SJL mice, we demonstrated that the blockade of cPLA(2)α during the effector phase of disease was more efficacious in ameliorating the disease pathogenesis than the blockade of each of the downstream enzymes, cyclooxygenase-1/2 and 5-lipooxygenase. Similarly, blockade of cPLA(2)α was highly efficacious in ameliorating disease pathogenesis during the effector phase of EAE in the adoptive transfer model of EAE in C57BL/6 mice. Investigation of the mechanism of action indicates that cPLA(2)α inhibitors act on APCs to diminish their ability to induce Ag-specific effector T cell proliferation and proinflammatory cytokine production. Furthermore, cPLA(2)α inhibitors may prevent activation of CNS-resident microglia and may increase oligodendrocyte survival. Finally, in a relapsing-remitting model of EAE in SJL mice, therapeutic administration of a cPLA(2)α inhibitor, starting from the peak of disease or during remission, completely protected the mice from subsequent relapses.

Cutaneous and splenic mastocytosis in a juvenile Malayan tiger.

A male Malayan tiger cub developed well-circumscribed, erythematous, alopecic lesions on the face, torso, and paws when 1-wk-old. Biopsies of a torso lesion and a right front paw lesion at 1-mo-old confirmed cutaneous mast cell tumors (MCTs). MCTs on the paws grew into pendulous masses up to 6.5 cm in diameter by 3-mo-old, but those on the face and torso regressed. Fine-needle aspiration of the spleen at 3-mo-old revealed marked mast cell infiltration. The spleen and the right paw cutaneous MCT were removed; the paw MCT recurred within 7 d. A 12-bp tandem duplication, suggesting a somatic mutation, was identified in exon 8 of c-KIT in DNA extracted from the cutaneous MCT on the right paw and from one over the torso, but not from the spleen. Remaining MCTs on the paws regressed slowly following splenectomy and had completely regressed by 1-y-old. At 7-y-old, there was no recurrence of any mast cell disease. Mast cell disease in this tiger cub is similar to a report in a domestic kitten and to pediatric mastocytosis in humans, which commonly begins in infancy, improves by adolescence, and is associated with somatic c-kit mutations. To our knowledge, mastocytosis has not been reported previously in a juvenile exotic felid.

Chronic nonchylous lymphatic pleural effusion in a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus).

CASE DESCRIPTION: A 19-year-old male bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) presented with inappetence and avoidant behavior. CLINICAL FINDINGS: Ultrasound revealed a large-volume left-sided pleural effusion, which was consistent with chronic nonchylous lymphatic effusion and mild chronic hemorrhage by cytology. Computed tomography identified ipsilateral rib fractures, atelectasis, nodular pleuritis, marginal lymph node enlargement, and suspected dilation of the thoracic duct and internal thoracic veins. Fifteen lipids were significantly higher in serum of the dolphin as compared with controls (n = 3) using nontargeted lipidomics. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: A series of thoracentesis procedures were performed. Follow-up CT demonstrated marked reduction in pleural effusion with persistence of thoracic duct dilation and mass-like areas of pleural thickening. Ultrasonographic resolution of pleural effusion occurred 14 months after presentation; however, recrudescence was noted 5 months later. Over a total of 24 months, 21.52 L of pleural effusion was removed. Despite the presence of pleural effusion, the patient was clinically stable during this time and quality of life was considered good on the basis of continuous animal welfare evaluations. Humane euthanasia was elected following acute clinical decline 27 months after initial diagnosis. Necropsy confirmed severe pleural effusion, chronic severe pleural fibrosis with chronic hemorrhage, and mediastinal fibrosis with entrapped lymph nodes and thymic tissue. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Pleuritis and effusion were suspected sequelae of previous rib fractures. To our knowledge, this is the first report of nonchylous lymphatic pleural effusion with repeated pleural drainage and diagnostic imaging for clinical management in a bottlenose dolphin.

Pharmacokinetics of meloxicam following intravenous and oral administration in green iguanas (Iguana iguana).

OBJECTIVE: To determine pharmacokinetics of meloxicam in healthy green iguanas following PO and IV administration and assess potential toxicity. ANIMALS: 21 healthy green iguanas (Iguana iguana). PROCEDURES: To assess pharmacokinetics, 13 iguanas were administered a single dose (0.2 mg/kg) of meloxicam PO and, 14 days later, the same dose IV. To assess potential toxicity, 4 iguanas were given meloxicam at a dosage of 1 or 5 mg/kg, PO, every 24 hours for 12 days, and results of histologic examination were compared with results for another 4 iguanas given a single dose of meloxicam (0.2 mg/kg). RESULTS: There were no significant differences between PO and IV administration with regard to terminal half-life (mean ± SD, 12.96 ± 8.05 hours and 9.93 ± 4.92 hours, respectively), mean area under the curve to the last measured concentration (5.08 ± 1.62 µg•h/mL and 5.83 ± 2.49 µg•h/mL), volume of distribution (745 ± 475 mL/kg and 487 ± 266 mL/kg), or clearance (40.17 ± 10.35 mL/kg/h and 37.17 ± 16.08 mL/kg/h). Maximum plasma concentration was significantly greater following IV (0.63 ± 0.17 µg/mL) versus PO (0.19 ± 0.07 µg/mL) administration. Time from administration to maximum plasma concentration and mean residence time were significantly longer following PO versus IV administration. Daily administration of high doses (1 or 5 mg/kg) for 12 days did not induce any histologic changes in gastric, hepatic, or renal tissues. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggested that administration of meloxicam at a dose of 0.2 mg/kg IV or PO in green iguanas would result in plasma concentrations > 0.1 µg/mL for approximately 24 hours.

Diagnosis and Surgical Management of a Paratesticular Cyst in a Rehabilitating Juvenile Male Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas).

A juvenile green turtle (Chelonia mydas) undergoing rehabilitation for cold stunning exhibited an asymmetric bulging of the left caudal plastron and was diagnosed with a large intra-coelomic mass based on radiographical findings. Ultrasonography further identified a fluid-filled structure within the caudal coelom. Cytological evaluation of fluid obtained from the structure was consistent with a transudate, and thus, a cyst of unknown origin was suspected. Computed tomography imaging was pursued to further characterize the extent and location of the mass, which occupied ~50% of the total coelomic cavity volume. Conservative management with monitoring and occasional drainage of the mass did not result in improvements; thus, an exploratory laparoscopy for further investigation and surgical planning was elected. Intra-coelomic surgery was performed to remove a thick-walled cystic mass associated with the left gonad. Histopathology confirmed a paratesticular cyst continuous with, and possibly originating from, the epididymis. Post-surgical recurrence of the cyst was not appreciated, and the animal was successfully released 1 year after admission. Unrelated to the cyst, the turtle developed acute severe anemia on two occasions throughout rehabilitation that responded to modification of antimicrobial treatment and subsequent steroid administration. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of a paratesticular cyst in a reptile.

Epidemiological Investigation of a Mortality Event in a Translocated Gopher Tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) Population in Northwest Florida.

Nokuse Plantation, a 22,055 ha private conservation preserve in northwest Florida, is a recipient site for gopher tortoises translocated from development sites in Florida. Since 2006, Nokuse has received over 5,000 tortoises from multiple development sites. During 2013-2015, 52 tortoises were found sick (n = 14) or dead (n = 38) in multiple soft-release enclosures in which tortoises consistently exhibited clinical signs, with additional sick (n = 5) and dead (n = 5) tortoises presenting similarly during 2016-2017. When found alive, tortoises behaved abnormally (e.g., frequently out of burrows during cold weather, pacing along enclosure fencing), appeared emaciated, were lethargic, and had developed redness under plastron scutes. Similar numbers of male (n = 28) and female (n = 32) tortoises were recovered along with two of unidentified sex, including mainly adults (n = 59) and three subadults. Physical examination, blood analysis, and other diagnostics were indicative of starvation and dehydration. Most sick tortoises provided with supportive care recovered. Necropsy findings generally confirmed starvation, with no evidence of infectious pathogens or contaminants. There were no apparent differences in quality of habitat, plant community, or soil or water among affected and unaffected enclosures. Botanical surveys indicated adequate forage quality and quantity, with no poisonous exotic or native plants detected. No land management practices changed prior to this event. Analysis of epidemiological data and demographic factors from before and during this mortality event identified initial density of tortoises in the enclosures as exerting the strongest influence on detection of tortoise morbidity and mortality. We believe that the stress associated with mixing tortoises from different populations and at higher densities during translocation impacted an individual tortoise's ability to obtain or absorb adequate nutrients from foraging, ultimately leading to a wasting condition consistent with starvation. Based on our findings, we recommend a maximum of 3 gopher tortoises per ha in soft-release enclosures for translocation, but further research is warranted to investigate the complexity of stress and social pressures associated with translocation.

Proventricular nematodiasis in wrinkled hornbills (Aceros corrugatus).

Three immature Sunda wrinkled hornbills (Aceros corrugatus) were diagnosed postmortem with proventricular spirurid nematodiasis. Concurrent severe disseminated larval granulomatosis in other visceral organs was considered contributory to mortality in each case. Clinical signs of nematodiasis were vague but generally consisted of weight loss, anorexia, and lethargy. Frequent antemortem fecal examinations were negative for spirurid eggs. In these present cases, based on routine histopathology, both prophylactic and empirically based therapeutic anthelmintic treatments had no evident benefit in the elimination of the proventricular nematodes. Spirurid nematodiasis may be an important cause of mortality in young hornbills.

Blockade of cytosolic phospholipase A2 alpha prevents experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and diminishes development of Th1 and Th17 responses.

Cytosolic phospholipase A2 alpha (cPLA2 alpha) is the rate-limiting enzyme for release of arachidonic acid, which is converted primarily to prostaglandins via the cyclooxygenase (COX) 1/2 pathways, and leukotrienes via the 5-lipoxygenase (LO) pathway. We utilized inhibitors of cPLA2 alpha, COX-1/2 and 5-LO to determine the potential roles of these enzymes in development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS). Blocking cPLA2 alpha prevented EAE development and greatly reduced antigen-induced production of Th1-type cytokines and IL-17. Blocking COX-1/2 delayed onset and reduced severity of EAE, and reduced production of Th1-type cytokines, but not IL-17. Blocking 5-LO delayed onset and reduced cumulative severity of EAE, but did not reduce production of Th1-type cytokines or IL-17. Finally, blockade of cPLA2 alpha from the onset of clinical EAE reduced duration of EAE relapses. Therefore, cPLA2 alpha represents a potential therapeutic target for treatment of MS.

Ranavirus infection of free-ranging and captive box turtles and tortoises in the United States.

Iridoviruses of the genus Ranavirus are well known for causing mass mortality events of fish and amphibians with sporadic reports of infection in reptiles. This article describes five instances of Ranavirus infection in chelonians between 2003 and 2005 in Georgia, Florida, New York, and Pennsylvania, USA. Affected species included captive Burmese star tortoises (Geochelone platynota), a free-ranging gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus), free-ranging eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina), and a Florida box turtle (Terrepene carolina bauri). Evidence for Ranavirus infection was also found in archived material from previously unexplained mass mortality events of eastern box turtles from Georgia in 1991 and from Texas in 1998. Consistent lesions in affected animals included necrotizing stomatitis and/or esophagitis, fibrinous and necrotizing splenitis, and multicentric fibrinoid vasculitis. Intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies were rarely observed in affected tissues. A portion of the major capsid protein (MCP) gene was sequenced from each case in 2003-2005 and found to be identical to each other and to Frog virus 3 (FV3) across 420 base pairs. Ranavirus infections were also documented in sympatric species of amphibians at two locations with infected chelonians. The fragment profiles of HindIII-digested whole genomic DNA of Ranavirus, isolated from a dead Burmese star tortoise and a southern leopard frog (Rana utricularia) found nearby, were similar. The box turtle isolate had a low molecular weight fragment that was not seen in the digestion profiles for the other isolates. These results suggest that certain amphibians and chelonians are infected with a similar virus and that different viruses exist among different chelonians. Amphibians may serve as a reservoir host for susceptible chelonians. This report also demonstrated that significant disease associated with Ranavirus infections are likely more widespread in chelonians than previously suspected.

Introduction and Establishment of Raccoon Rabies on Islands: Jekyll Island, Georgia, USA as a Case Study.

The introduction of rabies virus (RABV) to barrier islands, which are often popular tourist destinations with resource-rich habitats and connectivity and proximity to the mainland, is especially concerning because it can easily become endemic due to factors like dense rabies-vector populations (e.g., raccoons [ Procyon lotor]), high inter- and intraspecies contact rates, and anthropogenic activities such as supplemental feeding of feral cats ( Felis catus). In January 2013, a neurologic raccoon found on the Jekyll Island (JI), Georgia, US causeway tested positive for rabies. Mortality investigations of 29 raccoons have been conducted between December 2012-May 2017. The two most common diagnoses were RABV ( n=11) and canine distemper virus (CDV; n=8). Parvoviral enteritis was diagnosed in four raccoons but no coinfections were diagnosed. There was no apparent seasonality for rabies cases, but all CDV cases occurred in spring-fall. Most (64%) rabies submissions came from residential or recreational use areas located near feral cat feeding stations. Jekyll Island is a popular destination where tourists engage in numerous outdoor activities which facilitate human-wildlife interactions. Concerns regarding public and animal health highlight the importance of rabies surveillance, prevention, and control on islands. This is the first report of rabies on JI and emphasizes the importance of disease investigations because the assumption that neurologic raccoons have CDV, an endemic pathogen, can miss the establishment of novel pathogens such as RABV.

Evaluation of an endoscopic liver biopsy technique in green iguanas.

OBJECTIVE: To establish a safe and effective endoscopic technique for collection of liver biopsy specimens from lizards by use of a 2.7-mm rigid endoscope system that is commonly available in zoologic veterinary practice. DESIGN: Prospective study. ANIMALS: 11 subadult male green iguanas (Iguana iguana). PROCEDURES: Each lizard was anesthetized, and right-sided coelioscopic examination of the right liver lobe and gallbladder was performed. Three liver biopsy specimens were collected from each lizard by use of a 2.7-mm rigid endoscope and 1.7-mm (5-F) biopsy forceps. Biopsy samples were evaluated histologically for quality and crush artifact. Ten days following surgery, all iguanas were euthanatized and underwent full necropsy examination. RESULTS: For all 11 iguanas, the right liver lobe and gallbladder were successfully examined endoscopically, and 3 biopsy specimens of the liver were collected without complications. Mean +/- SD durations of anesthesia and surgery were 24 +/- 7 minutes and 6.8 +/- 1.0 minutes, respectively. At necropsy, there was no evidence of trauma or disease associated with the skin or muscle entry sites, liver, or any visceral structures in any iguana. All 33 biopsy specimens were considered acceptable for histologic interpretation; in most samples, the extent of crush artifact was considered minimal. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: By use of a 2.7-mm rigid endoscope, liver biopsy procedures can be performed safely, swiftly, and easily in green iguanas. Biopsy specimens obtained by this technique are suitable for histologic examination. For evaluation of the liver and biopsy specimen collection in lizards, endoscopy is recommended.

Endoscopic orchidectomy and salpingohysterectomy of pigeons (Columba livia): an avian model for minimally invasive endosurgery.

To evaluate a minimally invasive endosurgical system in birds, endoscopic orchidectomy and salpingohysterectomy were evaluated in 11 male and 14 female pigeons (Columba livia). Anesthesia was maintained by using isoflurane delivered by a pressure-cycle ventilator and produced good to excellent anesthesia during 96% of procedures. Endosurgery was performed with a 2.7-mm telescope system, 3-mm human pediatric laparoscopy instruments, and a 4.0-MHz radiofrequency device. Mean +/- SD surgery times for bilateral orchidectomy and salpingohysterectomy procedures were 39 +/- 18 minutes and 34 +/- 15 minutes, respectively. Procedures were generally straightforward, with any minor complications easily overcome. Surgical complications were generally minor, with mild hemorrhage and focal coagulative damage to the kidney being most common. All pigeons recovered quickly (20 +/- 11 minutes), with 95% displaying good to excellent recoveries. No birds exhibited any clinically apparent morbidity or mortality associated with endosurgery. At least 1 male and 1 female bird were subjected to elective euthanasia and necropsy on postoperative days 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, and 90 to determine the success and side effects of surgery. Gross and histologic abnormalities, when observed, were generally mild, with hemorrhage and partial necrosis of the cranial kidney present in 27% of males. Mild damage or hematoma associated with the left kidney was also reported in 28% of females. The surgical objectives were achieved in 23 of 25 pigeons. The 2 surgical failures (regenerated testes in a male and large oviductal remnant in a female) were attributed to endosurgical inexperience and occurred during the first procedures. Salpingohysterectomy does not appear to prevent ovarian development and ovulation in the pigeon, at least not during the first 3 postoperative months. Orchidectomy and salpingohysterectomy appear to be safe procedures when performed using appropriate equipment and techniques. Endosurgery offers a valuable, minimally invasive alternative to the standard coeliotomy techniques commonly used in birds.