Simulation of Drop-Size Distribution During Dropwise and Jumping Drop Condensation on a Vertical Surface: Implications for Heat Transfer Modeling.

Accurate models for condensation heat transfer are necessary to improve condenser design. Drop-size distribution is an important aspect of heat transfer modeling that is difficult to measure for small drop sizes. The present work uses a numerical simulation of condensation which incorporates the possibility of coalescence and coalescence-induced jumping over a range of drop sizes. Results of the simulation are compared with previous theoretical models and the impact of the assumptions used in those models is explored. In particular, previous drop-size distribution models may predict heat transfer rates less accurately for high contact angles and for coalescence-induced jumping since coalescence occurs over a range of drop sizes and does not always result in departure. The influence of various input parameters (nucleation site distribution approach, nucleation site density, contact angle, maximum drop size, heat transfer modeling to individual drops, and minimum jumping size) on the drop-size distribution and overall heat transfer rate is explored. Assignment of the nucleation site spatial distribution and heat transfer model affect both the drop-size distribution and predicted overall heat transfer rate. Results from the simulation suggest that, when the contact angle is large (as on superhydrophobic surfaces) and no coalescence-induced jumping occurs, the heat transfer may not be as sensitive to the maximum drop-size as previously supposed. Furthermore, this work suggests that when coalescence-induced jumping occurs, reducing the maximum drop size may not always increase heat transfer since drops similar in size to those removed by coalescence-induced jumping can contribute significantly to the overall heat transfer rate.

An inverse agonist of orphan receptor GPR61 acts by a G protein-competitive allosteric mechanism.

GPR61 is an orphan GPCR related to biogenic amine receptors. Its association with phenotypes relating to appetite makes it of interest as a druggable target to treat disorders of metabolism and body weight, such as obesity and cachexia. To date, the lack of structural information or a known biological ligand or tool compound has hindered comprehensive efforts to study GPR61 structure and function. Here, we report a structural characterization of GPR61, in both its active-like complex with heterotrimeric G protein and in its inactive state. Moreover, we report the discovery of a potent and selective small-molecule inverse agonist against GPR61 and structural elucidation of its allosteric binding site and mode of action. These findings offer mechanistic insights into an orphan GPCR while providing both a structural framework and tool compound to support further studies of GPR61 function and modulation.

Discovery of the Potent and Selective MC4R Antagonist PF-07258669 for the Potential Treatment of Appetite Loss.

The melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) is a centrally expressed, class A GPCR that plays a key role in the regulation of appetite and food intake. Deficiencies in MC4R signaling result in hyperphagia and increased body mass in humans. Antagonism of MC4R signaling has the potential to mitigate decreased appetite and body weight loss in the setting of anorexia or cachexia due to underlying disease. Herein, we report on the identification of a series of orally bioavailable, small-molecule MC4R antagonists using a focused hit identification effort and the optimization of these antagonists to provide clinical candidate 23. Introduction of a spirocyclic conformational constraint allowed for simultaneous optimization of MC4R potency and ADME attributes while avoiding the production of hERG active metabolites observed in early series leads. Compound 23 is a potent and selective MC4R antagonist with robust efficacy in an aged rat model of cachexia and has progressed into clinical trials.

Molecular characterization of novel and selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha agonists with robust hypolipidemic activity in vivo.

The nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) is recognized as the primary target of the fibrate class of hypolipidemic drugs and mediates lipid lowering in part by activating a transcriptional cascade that induces genes involved in the catabolism of lipids. We report here the characterization of three novel PPARalpha agonists with therapeutic potential for treating dyslipidemia. These structurally related compounds display potent and selective binding to human PPARalpha and support robust recruitment of coactivator peptides in vitro. These compounds markedly potentiate chimeric transcription systems in cell-based assays and strikingly lower serum triglycerides in vivo. The transcription networks induced by these selective PPARalpha agonists were assessed by transcriptional profiling of mouse liver after short- and long-term treatment. The induction of several known PPARalpha target genes involved with fatty acid metabolism were observed, reflecting the expected pharmacology associated with PPARalpha activation. We also noted the down-regulation of a number of genes related to immune cell function, the acute phase response, and glucose metabolism, suggesting that these compounds may have anti-inflammatory action in the mammalian liver. Whereas these compounds are efficacious in acute preclinical models, extended safety studies and further clinical testing will be required before the full therapeutic promise of a selective PPARalpha agonist is realized.

Synthesis and evaluation of novel alpha-heteroaryl-phenylpropanoic acid derivatives as PPARalpha/gamma dual agonists.

The synthesis of a new series of phenylpropanoic acid derivatives incorporating an heteroaryl group at the alpha-position and their evaluation for binding and activation of PPARalpha and PPARgamma are presented in this report. Among the new compounds, (S)-3-{4-[3-(5-methyl-2-phenyl-oxazol-4-yl)-propyl]-phenyl}-2-1,2,3-triazol-2-yl-propionic acid (17j), was identified as a potent human PPARalpha/gamma dual agonist (EC(50)=0.013 and 0.061 microM, respectively) with demonstrated oral bioavailability in rat and dog. 17j was shown to decrease insulin levels, plasma glucose, and triglycerides in the ZDF female rat model. In the human apolipoprotein A-1/CETP transgenic mouse model 17j produced increases in hApoA1 and HDL-C and decreases in plasma triglycerides. The increased potency for binding and activation of both PPAR subtypes observed with 17j when compared to previous analogs in this series was explained based on results derived from crystallographic and modeling studies.

Effects of modifications of the linker in a series of phenylpropanoic acid derivatives: Synthesis, evaluation as PPARalpha/gamma dual agonists, and X-ray crystallographic studies.

A new series of alpha-aryl or alpha-heteroarylphenyl propanoic acid derivatives was synthesized that incorporate acetylene-, ethylene-, propyl-, or nitrogen-derived linkers as a replacement of the commonly used ether moiety that joins the central phenyl ring with the lipophilic tail. The effect of these modifications in the binding and activation of PPARalpha and PPARgamma was first evaluated in vitro. Compounds possessing suitable profiles were then evaluated in the ob/ob mouse model of type 2 diabetes. The propylene derivative 40 and the propyl derivative 53 demonstrated robust plasma glucose lowering activity in this model. Compound 53 was also evaluated in male Zucker diabetic fatty rats and was found to achieve normalization of glucose, triglycerides, and insulin levels. An X-ray crystal structure of the complex of 53 with the PPARgamma-ligand-binding domain was obtained and discussed in this report.

Treating conduct disorder: An effectiveness and natural language analysis study of a new family-centred intervention program.

This paper reports on a new family-centred, feedback-informed intervention focused on evaluating therapeutic outcomes and language changes across treatment for conduct disorder (CD). The study included 26 youth and families from a larger randomised, controlled trial (Ronan et al., in preparation). Outcome measures reflected family functioning/youth compliance, delinquency, and family goal attainment. First- and last-treatment session audio files were transcribed into more than 286,000 words and evaluated through the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count Analysis program (Pennebaker et al., 2007). Significant outcomes across family functioning/youth compliance, delinquency, goal attainment and word usage reflected moderate-strong effect sizes. Benchmarking findings also revealed reduced time of treatment delivery compared to a gold standard approach. Linguistic analysis revealed specific language changes across treatment. For caregivers, increased first person, action-oriented, present tense, and assent type words and decreased sadness words were found; for youth, significant reduction in use of leisure words. This study is the first using lexical analyses of natural language to assess change across treatment for conduct disordered youth and families. Such findings provided strong support for program tenets; others, more speculative support.

Differential regulation of the cynomolgus, human, and rat acyl-CoA oxidase promoters by PPARalpha.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) is a member of the nuclear receptor family of transcription factors and is recognized as the molecular target of the hypolipidemic fibrate drugs. Fibrates promote lipid catabolism by inducing genes involved in fatty acid beta-oxidation. In rodents this is accompanied by peroxisome proliferation, and after chronic dosing hepatocarcinoma, whereas epidemiological studies suggest these adverse events are lacking in humans. Rodents such as rats and mice appear particularly sensitive to PPARalpha-induced peroxisome proliferation while humans are resistant. These findings question the utility of rodent models for safety monitoring of experimental PPARalpha agonists and highlight the need for additional preclinical models that display greater physiological relevance for human response. Thus we have focused on elucidating the molecular mechanism of species-dependent peroxisome proliferation by understanding the PPARalpha-dependent regulation of the acyl-CoA oxidase (AOX) promoter, the rate-limiting step of peroxisomal beta-oxidation. We have chosen the cynomolgus monkey as a model that is modestly responsive to peroxisome proliferation and functionally characterized it against the highly responsive rat and non-responsive human species. We report the identification of a putative peroxisome proliferator response element (PPRE) within the 2.3 kb proximal promoter of the cynomolgus monkey AOX gene. Characterization of these promoters using a series of constitutively active, PPARalpha constructs demonstrate that the PPREs within the proximal cynomolgus and human AOX promoters are non-responsive to PPARalpha whereas the rat PPRE is highly responsive. These findings were verified in vivo using a small molecule PPARalpha agonist. Taken together, we demonstrate concordant regulation of the AOX promoter by PPARalpha in cynomolgus monkeys and humans and suggest that this model is superior to rodent models with respect to preclinical evaluation of PPARalpha agonists.

Quantification of Porcine Vocal Fold Geometry.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to quantify porcine vocal fold medial surface geometry and three-dimensional geometric distortion induced by freezing the larynx, especially in the region of the vocal folds. STUDY DESIGN: The medial surface geometries of five excised porcine larynges were quantified and reported. METHODS: Five porcine larynges were imaged in a micro-CT scanner, frozen, and rescanned. Segmentations and three-dimensional reconstructions were used to quantify and characterize geometric features. Comparisons were made with geometry data previously obtained using canine and human vocal folds as well as geometries of selected synthetic vocal fold models. RESULTS: Freezing induced an overall expansion of approximately 5% in the transverse plane and comparable levels of nonuniform distortion in sagittal and coronal planes. The medial surface of the porcine vocal folds was found to compare reasonably well with other geometries, although the compared geometries exhibited a notable discrepancy with one set of published human female vocal fold geometry. CONCLUSIONS: Porcine vocal folds are qualitatively geometrically similar to data available for canine and human vocal folds, as well as commonly used models. Freezing of tissue in the larynx causes distortion of around 5%. The data can provide direction in estimating uncertainty due to bulk distortion of tissue caused by freezing, as well as quantitative geometric data that can be directly used in developing vocal fold models.

A Small-Molecule Anti-secretagogue of PCSK9 Targets the 80S Ribosome to Inhibit PCSK9 Protein Translation.

Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a secreted protein that downregulates low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor (LDL-R) levels on the surface of hepatocytes, resulting in decreased clearance of LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C). Phenotypic screening of a small-molecule compound collection was used to identify an inhibitor of PCSK9 secretion, (R)-N-(isoquinolin-1-yl)-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)-N-(piperidin-3-yl)propanamide (R-IMPP), which was shown to stimulate uptake of LDL-C in hepatoma cells by increasing LDL-R levels, without altering levels of secreted transferrin. Systematic investigation of the mode of action revealed that R-IMPP did not decrease PCSK9 transcription or increase PCSK9 degradation, but instead caused transcript-dependent inhibition of PCSK9 translation. In support of this surprising mechanism of action, we found that R-IMPP was able to selectively bind to human, but not E. coli, ribosomes. This study opens a new avenue for the development of drugs that modulate the activity of target proteins by mechanisms involving inhibition of eukaryotic translation.

Profound molecular changes following hippocampal slice preparation: loss of AMPA receptor subunits and uncoupled mRNA/protein expression.

The acute hippocampal slice preparation is a convenient, in vitro model widely used to study the biological basis of synaptic plasticity. Although slices may preserve their electrophysiological properties for several hours, profound molecular changes in response to the injury caused by the slicing procedure are likely to occur. To determine the magnitude and duration of these changes we examined the post-slicing expression kinetics of three classes of genes known to be implicated in long-term synaptic plasticity: glutamate AMPA receptors (GluR), transcription factors and neurotrophins. Slicing resulted in a striking loss of GluR1 and GluR3, but not of GluR2 proteins suggesting that rapid changes in the composition of major neurotransmitter receptors may occur. Slicing caused a significant induction of the transcription factors c-fos, zif268, CCAAT enhancer binding protein (C/EBP ) beta and delta mRNAs and of the neurotrophin brain-derived neurothophic factor (BDNF ) mRNA. In contrast, there was no augmentation, and sometimes a decline, in the levels of the corresponding proteins. These data reveal that significant discrepancies exist between the slice preparation and the intact hippocampus in terms of the metabolism of molecular components known to be involved in synaptic plasticity.