An adult Drosophila glioma model to highlight metabolic dysfunctions and evaluate the role of the serotonin 5-HT7 receptor as a potential therapeutic target.

Gliomas account for 50% of brain cancers and are therefore the most common brain tumors. Molecular alterations involved in adult gliomas have been identified and mainly affect tyrosine kinase receptors with amplification and/or mutation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and its associated signaling pathways. Several targeted therapies have been developed, but current treatments remain ineffective for glioblastomas, the most severe forms. Thus, it is a priority to identify new pharmacological targets. Drosophila glioma models established in larvae and adults are useful to identify new genes and signaling pathways involved in glioma progression. Here, we used a Drosophila glioma model in adults, to characterize metabolic disturbances associated with glioma and assess the consequences of 5-HT7 R expression on glioma development. First, by using in vivo magnetic resonance imaging, we have shown that expression of the constitutively active forms of EGFR and PI3K in adult glial cells induces brain enlargement. Then, we explored altered cellular metabolism by using high-resolution magic angle spinning NMR and 1 H-13 C heteronuclear single quantum coherence solution states. Discriminant metabolites identified highlight the rewiring of metabolic pathways in glioma and associated cachexia phenotypes. Finally, the expression of 5-HT7 R in this adult model attenuates phenotypes associated with glioma development. Collectively, this whole-animal approach in Drosophila allowed us to provide several rapid and robust phenotype readouts, such as enlarged brain volume and glioma-associated cachexia, as well as to determine the metabolic pathways involved in glioma genesis and finally to confirm the interest of the 5-HT7 R in the treatment of glioma.

Small, Fluorinated Mn2+ Chelate as an Efficient 1H and 19F MRI Probe.

We explore the potential of fluorine-containing small Mn2+ chelates as alternatives to perfluorinated nanoparticles, widely used as 19F MRI probes. In MnL1, the cyclohexanediamine skeleton and two piperidine rings, involving each a metal-coordinating amide group and an appended CF3 moiety, provide high rigidity to the complex. This allows for good control of the Mn-F distance (rMnF=8.2±0.2 Šdetermined from 19F relaxation data), as well as for high kinetic inertness (a dissociation half-life of 1285 h is estimated for physiological conditions). The paramagnetic Mn2+ leads to a ~150-fold acceleration of the longitudinal 19F relaxation, with moderate line-broadening effect, resulting in T2/T1 ratios of 0.8 (9.4 T). Owing to its inner sphere water molecule, MnL1 is a good 1H relaxation agent as well (r1=5.36 mM-1 s-1 at 298 K, 20 MHz). MnL1 could be readily visualized in 19F MRI by using fast acquisition techniques, both in phantom images and living mice following intramuscular injection, with remarkable signal-to-noise ratios and short acquisition times. While applications in targeted imaging or cell therapy monitoring require further optimisation of the molecular structure, these results argue for the potential of such small, monohydrated and fluorinated Mn2+ complexes for combined 19F and 1H MRI detection.

Lanthanide-Based Probes for Imaging Detection of Enzyme Activities by NIR Luminescence, T1- and ParaCEST MRI.

Applying a single molecular probe to monitor enzymatic activities in multiple, complementary imaging modalities is highly desirable to ascertain detection and to avoid the complexity associated with the use of agents of different chemical entities. We demonstrate here the versatility of lanthanide (Ln3+) complexes with respect to their optical and magnetic properties and their potential for enzymatic detection in NIR luminescence, CEST and T1 MR imaging, controlled by the nature of the Ln3+ ion, while using a unique chelator. Based on X-ray structural, photophysical, and solution NMR investigations of a family of Ln3+ DO3A-pyridine model complexes, we could rationalize the luminescence (Eu3+, Yb3+), CEST (Yb3+) and relaxation (Gd3+) properties and their variations between carbamate and amine derivatives. This allowed the design of L n L G a l 5 ${{{\bf L n L}}_{{\bf G a l}}^{5}}$ probes which undergo enzyme-mediated changes detectable in NIR luminescence, CEST and T1-weighted MRI, respectively governed by variations in their absorption energy, in their exchanging proton pool and in their size, thus relaxation efficacy. We demonstrate that these properties can be exploited for the visualization of ß-galactosidase activity in phantom samples by different imaging modalities: NIR optical imaging, CEST and T1-weighted MRI.

Brain orchestration of pregnancy and maternal behavior in mice: A longitudinal morphometric study.

Reproduction induces changes within the brain to prepare for gestation and motherhood. However, the dynamic of these central changes and their relationships with the development of maternal behavior remain poorly understood. Here, we describe a longitudinal morphometric neuroimaging study in female mice between pre-gestation and weaning, using new magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) resources comprising a high-resolution brain template, its associated tissue priors (60-µm isotropic resolution) and a corresponding mouse brain atlas (1320 regions of interest). Using these tools, we observed transient hypertrophies not only within key regions controlling gestation and maternal behavior (medial preoptic area, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis), but also in the amygdala, caudate nucleus and hippocampus. Additionally, unlike females exhibiting lower levels of maternal care, highly maternal females developed transient hypertrophies in somatosensory, entorhinal and retrosplenial cortices among other regions. Therefore, coordinated and transient brain modifications associated with maternal performance occurred during gestation and lactation.

Doxorubicin-Sensitized Luminescence of NIR-Emitting Ytterbium Liposomes: Towards Direct Monitoring of Drug Release.

Drug-loaded liposomes are typical examples of nanomedicines. We show here that doxorubicin, the anti-cancer agent in the liposomal drug Doxil, can sensitize Ytterbium (Yb3+ ) and generate its near-infrared (NIR) emission. When doxorubicin and amphiphilic Yb3+ chelates are incorporated into liposomes, the sensitized emission of Yb3+ is dependent on the integrity of the particles, which can be used to monitor drug release. We also established the first demonstration that the NIR Yb3+ emission signal is observable in living mice following intratumoral injection of the Yb3+ -doxorubicin-liposomes, using a commercial macroscopic setup equipped with a NIR camera.

Prototypes of Lanthanide(III) Agents Responsive to Enzymatic Activities in Three Complementary Imaging Modalities: Visible/Near-Infrared Luminescence, PARACEST-, and T1-MRI.

We report first prototypes of responsive lanthanide(III) complexes that can be monitored independently in three complementary imaging modalities. Through the appropriate choice of lanthanide(III) cations, the same reactive ligand can be used to form complexes providing detection by (i) visible (Tb(3+)) and near-infrared (Yb(3+)) luminescence, (ii) PARACEST- (Tb(3+), Yb(3+)), or (iii) T1-weighted (Gd(3+)) MRI. The use of lanthanide(III) ions of different natures for these imaging modalities induces only a minor change in the structure of complexes that are therefore expected to have a single biodistribution and cytotoxicity.

Sensitive Trimodal Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Surface-Enhanced Resonance Raman Scattering-Fluorescence Detection of Cancer Cells with Stable Magneto-Plasmonic Nanoprobes.

Novel magneto-plasmonic nanoprobes were designed for multimodal diagnosis of cancer by combination of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), surface-enhanced resonance Raman scattering (SERRS), and fluorescence emission in the very near infrared (VNIR). A controlled electrostatic assembly of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs), VNIR dye Nile Blue (NB), and biopolymer chitosan (Chi) was used to formulate the AgIONs-Chi nanoprobes. The formulation protocol did not involve organic solvents and was rapid and efficient as confirmed by magnetic sorting. The SERRS response of the nanoprobes was very intense and constant for days. It decreased linearly upon 1000-fold dilution and was still recognizable at 0.1 nM NB concentration. After 30 days of storage, the SERRS loss was less than 30% and the hydrodynamic size of the AgIONs-Chi in PBS remained below 200 nm. The gradual decrease of the ratio SERRS/fluorescence allowed one to monitor the release of the fluorescent molecule upon long-term nanoprobe dissociation. The AgIONs-Chi exhibited 2-fold higher MRI contrast than that of commercially available SPION suspensions. Finally, the nanoprobes were actively uptaken by HeLa cancer cells and ensured trimodal MRI-SERRS-fluorescence detection of 10 µL cell inclusions in cm-sized agarose gels used here as phantom models of microtumors. The above results show that the magneto-plasmonic AgIONs-Chi are promising substrates for SERRS analysis in solution and for multimodal imaging of cancer cells.

Type I interferons contribute to experimental cerebral malaria development in response to sporozoite or blood-stage Plasmodium berghei ANKA.

Cerebral malaria is a severe complication of Plasmodium falciparum infection. Although T-cell activation and type II IFN-γ are required for Plasmodium berghei ANKA (PbA)-induced murine experimental cerebral malaria (ECM), the role of type I IFN-α/ß in ECM development remains unclear. Here, we address the role of the IFN-α/ß pathway in ECM devel-opment in response to hepatic or blood-stage PbA infection, using mice deficient for types I or II IFN receptors. While IFN-γR1⁻/⁻ mice were fully resistant, IFNAR1⁻/⁻ mice showed delayed and partial protection to ECM after PbA infection. ECM resistance in IFN-γR1⁻/⁻ mice correlated with unaltered cerebral microcirculation and absence of ischemia, while WT and IFNAR1⁻/⁻ mice developed distinct microvascular pathologies. ECM resistance appeared to be independent of parasitemia. Instead, key mediators of ECM were attenuated in the absence of IFNAR1, including PbA-induced brain sequestration of CXCR3⁺-activated CD8⁺ T cells. This was associated with reduced expression of Granzyme B, IFN-γ, IL-12Rß2, and T-cell-attracting chemokines CXCL9 and CXCL10 in IFNAR1⁻/⁻ mice, more so in the absence of IFN-γR1. Therefore, the type I IFN-α/ß receptor pathway contributes to brain T-cell responses and microvascular pathology, although it is not as essential as IFN-γ for the development of cerebral malaria upon hepatic or blood-stage PbA infection.

IL-12Rß2 is essential for the development of experimental cerebral malaria.

A Th1 response is required for the development of Plasmodium berghei ANKA (PbA)-induced experimental cerebral malaria (ECM). The role of pro-Th1 IL-12 in malaria is complex and controversial. In this study, we addressed the role of IL-12Rß2 in ECM development. C57BL/6 mice deficient for IL-12Rß2, IL-12p40, or IL-12p35 were analyzed for ECM development after blood-stage PbA infection in terms of ischemia and blood flow by noninvasive magnetic resonance imaging and angiography, T cell recruitment, and gene expression. Without IL-12Rß2, no neurologic sign of ECM developed upon PbA infection. Although wild-type mice developed distinct brain microvascular pathology, ECM-resistant, IL-12Rß2-deficient mice showed unaltered cerebral microcirculation and the absence of ischemia after PbA infection. In contrast, mice deficient for IL-12p40 or IL-12p35 were sensitive to ECM development. The resistance of IL-12Rß2-deficient mice to ECM correlated with reduced recruitment of activated T cells and impaired overexpression of lymphotoxin-α, TNF-α, and IFN-γ in the brain after PbA infection. Therefore, IL-12Rß2 signaling is essential for ECM development but independent from IL-12p40 and IL-12p35. We document a novel link between IL-12Rß2 and lymphotoxin-α, TNF-α, and IFN-γ expression, key cytokines for ECM pathogenesis.

A phosphorylated zinc finger peptide bearing a gadolinium complex for zinc detection by MRI.

Two zinc finger peptides, namely ZFQDLn and ZFQELn (Ln = Tb or Gd), with an appended Ln3+ chelate and a phosphoserine able to coordinate the Ln3+ ion are presented. The two peptides differ by the amino acid anchorage of the chelate, either aspartate (D) or glutamate (E). Both peptides are able to bind Zn2+ and adopt the ßßα fold. Interestingly, ZFQETb shows a decrease in sensitized Tb3+ luminescence upon Zn2+ binding whereas ZFQDTb does not. The luminescence change upon Zn2+ binding is attributed to a change in hydration number (q) of the Tb3+ ion due to the decoordination of the phosphoserine from the Ln3+ ion upon Zn2+ binding and peptide folding. This process is highly sensitive to the length of the linker between the Ln chelate and the peptidic backbone. The magnetic properties of the gadolinium analogue ZFQEGd were studied. An impressive relaxivity increase of 140% is observed at 60 MHz and 25 °C upon Zn2+ binding. These changes can be attributed to a combined increase effect of the hydration number of Gd3+ and of the rigidity of the system upon Zn2+ binding. Phantom MR images at 9.4 T show a clear signal enhancement in the presence of Zn2+. These zinc finger peptides offer a unique platform to design such Zn-responsive probes.

Protein kinase C-theta is required for development of experimental cerebral malaria.

Cerebral malaria is the most severe neurologic complication in children and young adults infected with Plasmodium falciparum. T-cell activation is required for development of Plasmodium berghei ANKA (PbA)-induced experimental cerebral malaria (CM). To characterize the T-cell activation pathway involved, the role of protein kinase C-theta (PKC-θ) in experimental CM development was examined. PKC-θ-deficient mice are resistant to CM development. In the absence of PKC-θ, no neurologic sign of CM developed after blood stage PbA infection. Resistance of PKC-θ-deficient mice correlated with unaltered cerebral microcirculation and absence of ischemia, as documented by magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance angiography, whereas wild-type mice developed distinct microvascular pathology. Recruitment and activation of CD8(+) T cells, and ICAM-1 and CD69 expression were reduced in the brain of resistant mice; however, the pulmonary inflammation and edema associated with PbA infection were still present in the absence of functional PKC-θ. Resistant PKC-θ-deficient mice developed high parasitemia, and died at 3 weeks with severe anemia. Therefore, PKC-θ signaling is crucial for recruitment of CD8(+) T cells and development of brain microvascular pathology resulting in fatal experimental CM, and may represent a novel therapeutic target of CM.

Deciphering the Role of Klf10 in the Cerebellum.

Recent studies have demonstrated a new role for Klf10, a Krüppel-like transcription factor, in skeletal muscle, specifically relating to mitochondrial function. Thus, it was of interest to analyze additional tissues that are highly reliant on optimal mitochondrial function such as the cerebellum and to decipher the role of Klf10 in the functional and structural properties of this brain region. In vivo (magnetic resonance imaging and localized spectroscopy, behavior analysis) and in vitro (histology, spectroscopy analysis, enzymatic activity) techniques were applied to comprehensively assess the cerebellum of wild type (WT) and Klf10 knockout (KO) mice. Histology analysis and assessment of locomotion revealed no significant difference in Klf10 KO mice. Diffusion and texture results obtained using MRI revealed structural changes in KO mice characterized as defects in the organization of axons. These modifications may be explained by differences in the levels of specific metabolites (myo-inositol, lactate) within the KO cerebellum. Loss of Klf10 expression also led to changes in mitochondrial activity as reflected by a significant increase in the activity of citrate synthase, complexes I and IV. In summary, this study has provided evidence that Klf10 plays an important role in energy production and mitochondrial function in the cerebellum.

Novel role of Tieg1 in muscle metabolism and mitochondrial oxidative capacities.

AIM: Tieg1 is involved in multiple signalling pathways, human diseases, and is highly expressed in muscle where its functions are poorly understood. METHODS: We have utilized Tieg1 knockout (KO) mice to identify novel and important roles for this transcription factor in regulating muscle ultrastructure, metabolism and mitochondrial functions in the soleus and extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles. RNA sequencing, immunoblotting, transmission electron microscopy, MRI, NMR, histochemical and mitochondrial function assays were performed. RESULTS: Loss of Tieg1 expression resulted in altered sarcomere organization and a significant decrease in mitochondrial number. Histochemical analyses demonstrated an absence of succinate dehydrogenase staining and a decrease in cytochrome c oxidase (COX) enzyme activity in KO soleus with similar, but diminished, effects in the EDL. Decreased complex I, COX and citrate synthase (CS) activities were detected in the soleus muscle of KO mice indicating altered mitochondrial function. Complex I activity was also diminished in KO EDL. Significant decreases in CS and respiratory chain complex activities were identified in KO soleus. 1 H-NMR spectra revealed no significant metabolic difference between wild-type and KO muscles. However, 31 P spectra revealed a significant decrease in phosphocreatine and ATPγ. Altered expression of 279 genes, many of which play roles in mitochondrial and muscle function, were identified in KO soleus muscle. Ultimately, all of these changes resulted in an exercise intolerance phenotype in Tieg1 KO mice. CONCLUSION: Our findings have implicated novel roles for Tieg1 in muscle including regulation of gene expression, metabolic activity and organization of tissue ultrastructure. This muscle phenotype resembles diseases associated with exercise intolerance and myopathies of unknown consequence.

Development of a novel multiphysical approach for the characterization of mechanical properties of musculotendinous tissues.

At present, there is a lack of well-validated protocols that allow for the analysis of the mechanical properties of muscle and tendon tissues. Further, there are no reports regarding characterization of mouse skeletal muscle and tendon mechanical properties in vivo using elastography thereby limiting the ability to monitor changes in these tissues during disease progression or response to therapy. Therefore, we sought to develop novel protocols for the characterization of mechanical properties in musculotendinous tissues using atomic force microscopy (AFM) and ultrasound elastography. Given that TIEG1 knockout (KO) mice exhibit well characterized defects in the mechanical properties of skeletal muscle and tendon tissue, we have chosen to use this model system in the present study. Using TIEG1 knockout and wild-type mice, we have devised an AFM protocol that does not rely on the use of glue or chemical agents for muscle and tendon fiber immobilization during acquisition of transversal cartographies of elasticity and topography. Additionally, since AFM cannot be employed on live animals, we have also developed an ultrasound elastography protocol using a new linear transducer, SLH20-6 (resolution: 38 µm, footprint: 2.38 cm), to characterize the musculotendinous system in vivo. This protocol allows for the identification of changes in muscle and tendon elasticities. Such innovative technological approaches have no equivalent to date, promise to accelerate our understanding of musculotendinous mechanical properties and have numerous research and clinical applications.

MRI methodological development of intervertebral disc degeneration: a rabbit in vivo study at 9.4 T.

Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration is a complex process characterized by biochemical and structural changes in both the nucleus pulposus and the anulus fibrosus. In this study, we were able to obtain in vivo magnetic resonance (MR) images of the rabbit spine, with several MR imaging (MRI) contrasts (rho, T(1) and T(2)). We quantified several parameters (T(2), apparent diffusion coefficient, disc height and area) to differentiate between healthy and degenerative IVDs and to characterize the degeneration process. To our knowledge, there has not been any previous in vivo study of rabbit IVDs at high-field MRI (9.4 T). A custom radio frequency (RF) coil for 9.4 T was designed to match rabbit IVD morphology, to study the degeneration in vivo on a model of human lumbar disease. Our new probe, a custom half-birdcage-type coil, obtains the necessary exploration depth while meeting the requirements for signal homogeneity and sensitivity of the study. This design addresses some of the difficulties with constructing RF coils at high field strengths.

MRI and luminescence detection of Zn2+ with a lanthanide complex-zinc finger peptide conjugate.

A bioinspired probe based on a zinc finger peptide functionalized by a lanthanide(iii)-DOTA monoamide complex turns out to be active for both luminescence and MRI detection of Zn2+, depending on the lanthanide cation. A mechanism for MRI-based detection is proposed.

Surface PEG Grafting Density Determines Magnetic Relaxation Properties of Gd-Loaded Porous Nanoparticles for MR Imaging Applications.

Surface PEGylation of nanoparticles designed for biomedical applications is a common and straightforward way to stabilize the materials for in vivo administration and to increase their circulation time. This strategy becomes less trivial when MRI active porous nanomaterials are concerned as their function relies on water/proton-exchange between the pores and bulk water. Here we present a comprehensive study on the effects of PEGylation on the relaxometric properties of nanozeolite LTL (dimensions of 20 × 40 nm) ion-exchanged with paramagnetic GdIII ions. We evidence that as long as the surface grafting density of the PEG chains does not exceed the "mushroom" regime (conjugation of up to 6.2 wt % of PEG), Gd-LTL retains a remarkable longitudinal relaxivity (38 s-1 mM-1 at 7 T and 25 °C) as well as the pH-dependence of the longitudinal and transverse relaxation times. At higher PEG content, the more compact PEG layer (brush regime) limits proton/water diffusion and exchange between the interior of LTL and the bulk, with detrimental consequences on relaxivity. Furthermore, PEGylation of Gd-LTL dramatically decreases the leakage of toxic GdIII ions in biological media and in the presence of competing anions, which together with minimal cytotoxicity renders these materials promising probes for MRI applications.

MRI sensing of neurotransmitters with a crown ether appended Gd(3+) complex.

Molecular magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) approaches that detect biomarkers associated with neural activity would allow more direct observation of brain function than current functional MRI based on blood-oxygen-level-dependent contrast. Our objective was to create a synthetic molecular platform with appropriate recognition moieties for zwitterionic neurotransmitters that generate an MR signal change upon neurotransmitter binding. The gadolinium complex (GdL) we report offers ditopic binding for zwitterionic amino acid neurotransmitters, via interactions (i) between the positively charged and coordinatively unsaturated metal center and the carboxylate function and (ii) between a triazacrown ether and the amine group of the neurotransmitters. GdL discriminates zwitterionic neurotransmitters from monoamines. Neurotransmitter binding leads to a remarkable relaxivity change, related to a decrease in hydration number. GdL was successfully used to monitor neural activity in ex vivo mouse brain slices by MRI.

Metabolite localization in living drosophila using High Resolution Magic Angle Spinning NMR.

We have developed new methods enabling in vivo localization and identification of metabolites through their (1)H NMR signatures, in a drosophila. Metabolic profiles in localized regions were obtained using HR-MAS Slice Localized Spectroscopy and Chemical Shift Imaging at high magnetic fields. These methods enabled measurement of metabolite contents in anatomic regions of the fly, demonstrated by a decrease in ß-alanine signals in the thorax of flies showing muscle degeneration.

In vivo magnetic resonance microscopy of Drosophilae at 9.4 T.

In preclinical research, genetic studies have made considerable progress as a result of the development of transgenic animal models of human diseases. Consequently, there is now a need for higher resolution MRI to provide finer details for studies of small animals (rats, mice) or very small animals (insects). One way to address this issue is to work with high-magnetic-field spectrometers (dedicated to small animal imaging) with strong magnetic field gradients. It is also necessary to develop a complete methodology (transmit/receive coil, pulse sequence, fixing system, air supply, anesthesia capabilities, etc.). In this study, we developed noninvasive protocols, both in vitro and in vivo (from coil construction to image generation), for drosophila MRI at 9.4 T. The 10 10 80-µm resolution makes it possible to visualize whole drosophila (head, thorax, abdomen) and internal organs (ovaries, longitudinal and transverse muscles, bowel, proboscis, antennae and optical lobes). We also provide some results obtained with a Drosophila model of muscle degeneration. This opens the way for new applications of structural genetic modification studies using MRI of drosophila.