A study on the attitude of Polish psychotherapists towards online therapy - Polish adaptation of the UTAUT-T (Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology - Therapist version) and verification of the UTAUT-T model. / Badanie nastawienia polskich psychoterapeutów wobec terapii online ­ polska adaptacja kwestionariusza UTAUT-T (Uogólniona Teoria Akceptacji i Stosowania Technologii, wersja dla Terapeutów (Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology ­ Therapists Version) oraz weryfikacja modelu UTAUT-T.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to verify the psychometric properties of the Polish adaptation of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology - Therapist version (UTAUT-T) and to verify the UTAUT-T model in a group of Polish psychotherapists. METHODS: A total of 434 people aged 27-66 (M = 40.78; SD = 7.70), including 337 women and 58 men, took part in an online self-report study, which involved completing three questionnaires: UTAUT-T, the short IPIP-BFM-20 Questionnaire for measuring the Big Five, the Technology Readiness Index (TRI 2.0), as well as answers to questions about the use of digital technologies at work. The following analyses were carried out: confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), reliability analysis using Cronbach's alpha, and theoretical validity analysis - an analysis of the correlation between the subscales of the UTAUT-T instrument and questionnaires enabling the measurement of dimensions which had been indicated in previous research results as related to the acceptance of technology. RESULTS: The conducted analyses showed that the factor structure of the Polish version of UTAUT-T is the same as of the original tool, and the UTAUT-T model was confirmed in the group of Polish psychotherapists. The Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient for individual subscales ranged from 0.57 to 0.97. The theoretical validity analysis confirmed the expected correlations between most dimensions of technology acceptance and technology readiness. In addition, there were single very weak correlations observed between technology acceptance and personality traits. CONCLUSIONS: The psychometric properties of the Polish version of UTAUT-T show satisfactory values. The scale can be used to conduct further research. The UTAUT-T model can be utilized to predict the actual use of new technologies by Polish psychotherapists.

Long-lasting effects of World War II trauma on PTSD symptoms and embodiment levels in a national sample of Poles.

The main aim of this study was to investigate the long-lasting influences of World War II (WWII) trauma in a national sample of Poles, based on Danieli's (1998) survivors' post-trauma adaptational styles (fighter, numb, victim) and their link with current post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and embodiment level among participants. We also sought to investigate whether the level of knowledge about WWII trauma among ancestors could moderate that association. The study was conducted among a representative sample of 1598 adult Poles obtained from an external company. Participants filled out the Danieli Inventory of Multigenerational Legacies of Trauma, the knowledge about traumatic World War II experiences in the family questionnaire, the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale-5, and the Experience of Embodiment Scale. We observed a positive relationship between all survivors' post-trauma adaptational styles and current levels of PTSD symptoms among participants. In addition, PTSD level mediated the relationships between those adaptational styles and embodiment intensity; that mediation was additionally moderated by a lack of knowledge about WWII trauma among ancestors in our participants. Our study adds to the literature on intergenerational trauma by highlighting the importance of evaluating embodiment in understanding the mechanisms of trauma transmission. Furthermore, it highlights the moderating effect of knowledge of family history in this mechanism and the need to share family histories with subsequent generations.

Exposure to self-reported traumatic events and probable PTSD in a national sample of Poles: Why does Poland's PTSD prevalence differ from other national estimates?

BACKGROUND: There is a lack of studies on trauma exposure and PTSD prevalence in Poland on representative samples. Available data from studies on convenient samples show very high rates of probable PTSD compared with relevant estimates in other countries. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to measure the exposure to self-report traumatic events (PTEs) and to estimate the current rate of prevalence of probable posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in accordance with DSM-5 criteria in a population-based sample of Poles. Additionally, the link between PTSD intensity and level of life satisfaction was investigated. METHOD: A representative sample of 1,598 adult Poles was recruited. Probable PTSD was assessed with the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale for DSM-5 (PDS-5) and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) was also used. RESULTS: The findings showed that 60.3% of Poles had experienced at least one PTE and 31.1% of those who had been exposed to trauma reported symptoms of PTSD. At the level of the entire sample, the obtained rate for probable PTSD was 18.8%. The traumatic events with the highest probabilities of PTSD symptoms were child abuse and sexual assault. Levels of life satisfaction were significantly lower in the group of participants with probable PTSD. CONCLUSIONS: We found that the current prevalence of probable PTSD in Poland is intriguingly high relative to rates reported in comparable representative samples from other countries across the world. Possible mechanisms are discussed, including a lack of social acknowledgement of WWII and other traumas as well as poor access to trauma-focused care. We hope that this research may inspire more studies investigating cross-national differences in PTSD and trauma exposure.

[The present level of post-traumatic stress symptoms in a sample of child survivors of World War II]. / Aktualny poziom objawów stresu potraumatycznego w próbie osób, które w dziecinstwie przezyly II wojne swiatowa.

AIM: The aim of the study was to estimate the prevalence of PTSD and level of symptoms more broadly considered as post-traumatic e.g. depression among Polish child survivors of World War II. METHOD: Data were collected from 218 individuals aged 63-78. MEASURES: a list of questions regarding exposure to a range of war related traumas; PDS (Foa, 1995); IES (Horowitz et al., 1976) to measure PTSD symptoms and BDI (Beck et al., 1961) for depression symptoms. RESULTS: Exposure to potentially traumatic events related to the WWII varied from 1.83% to 47.25%. The prevalence of PTSD symptoms at a diagnostic level according to PDS was 29.4%. The mean values B, C and D-category symptoms were respectively: 2.08 (SD=1.74), 2.34 (SD=1.98) and 2.40 (SD=1.69). Greater age, parental loss and exposure to at least one traumatic war-related event (this variable was close to the level of statistical significance, however) were all predictors of a diagnostic level of PTSD symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: 60 years after WW II about one-third of respondents manifest a clinical level of PTSD symptoms. Taking into consideration the results of the research on the child survivors of the modern wars, psychosocial and cultural factors should also be examined as causes of this phenomenon.

The Polish adaptation of the Disclosure of Trauma Questionnaire (DTQ). / Polska adaptacja Kwestionariusza Ujawnienia Traumy (DTQ).

OBJECTIVES: Trauma disclosure is one of the key concepts of the social-interpersonal model of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This study aimed to present the Polish adaptation of the Disclosure of Trauma Questionnaire (DTQ). METHODS: The study was conducted among 120 participants (51 females and 69 males) aged 18-58 years (M = 34.52; SD = 9.95). The reliability of the DTQ was measured using Cronbach's alpha coefficients and intraclass correlation coefficients. The validity of the DTQ compared to the scores acquired with the PTSD Diagnostic Scale for DSM-5 (PDS-5), the Impact of Event Scale (IES), the Social Acknowledgment Questionnaire (SAQ), and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) was confirmed through confirmatory factor analysis and correlation analysis. RESULTS: The Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.87 for reluctance to talk subscale, 0.74 for urge to talk subscale, 0.85 for emotional reactions subscale, and 0.85 for the total DTQ questionnaire score. The intraclass correlation coefficients were high: 0.83 for reluctance to talk, 0.71 for urge to talk, 0.77 for emotional reactions, and 0.76 for the total DTQ questionnaire score. The factorial structure of the DTQ was confirmed through confirmatory factor analysis. The DTQ subscale scores correlated positively with the severity of PTSD symptoms and depressive symptoms, as well as the lack of social acknowledgement, as expected. CONCLUSIONS: The observed empirical results confirmed the satisfactory psychometric properties of the DTQ. This inventory may be useful for a broader understanding of how trauma disclosure is related to the social context of dealing with traumatic events.

Long-Term Psychological Consequences of World War II Trauma Among Polish Survivors: A Mixed-Methods Study on the Role of Social Acknowledgment.

BACKGROUND: The research on the psychological consequences of World War II (WWII) trauma has predominantly focused on concentration camp and Holocaust survivors. Only a few studies have been undertaken among civilian survivors of WWII. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to examine the association between perceived social acknowledgment of WWII trauma and the level of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depressive symptoms among Polish survivors of WWII by employing a mixed-methods design (i.e., a quantitative analysis supported by qualitative interviews). METHOD: In the quantitative part, 123 participants filled out: the list of WWII-related traumatic events, the PTSD Checklist for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (PCL-5), the shortened version of the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS), and the Social Acknowledgment Questionnaire (SAQ). In the qualitative part, an interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) of participants' reminiscences of WWII was examined. RESULTS: Although we observed a direct positive association between the number of WWII-related traumatic events and the intensity of PTSD and depressive symptoms, these relationships changed when we entered the social acknowledgment construct into the model. Specifically, we found that perceived social acknowledgment (general disapproval) was a mediator of the relationship between the number of WWII traumatic events and the intensity of PTSD symptoms only, and not of depressive symptoms. In the qualitative part, three themes relating to traumatic reminiscences emerged among the participants: parental efficacy, parental betrayal, and support from the invader. CONCLUSION: Our study showed the significance of the general social acknowledgment in the long-term mental consequences of the WWII trauma in Poland. In addition, the results of our study may be an adjunct to the discussion on the long-term impact of WWII trauma in Poland and the factors that hindered its social recognition.

Knowledge about traumatic World War II experiences among ancestors and subjective well-being of young adults: A person-centred perspective.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of our study is to examine the association between knowledge about the World War II (WWII)-related traumatic experiences of their ancestors and subjective well-being (SWB) of young adults, i.e., descendants of Polish survivors of WWII. Specifically, we focus on the life satisfaction and the mental, physical, and psychosocial well-being of our participants in relation to their knowledge about WWII trauma in their family histories. METHOD: The sample comprised 500 Polish young adults recruited from a nonclinical general population. Participants first filled out a questionnaire assessing their knowledge about traumatic events that their ancestors could have experienced during WWII (see grandparents/mothers, great-grandparents/mothers). After that, subjects were given inventories to assess their SWB, i.e., the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28). RESULTS: Latent profile analysis was applied to extract profiles of participants differing with regard to the scope of knowledge about WWII-related traumatic experiences among ancestors. Specifically, six profiles were observed, and a general lack of knowledge about this kind of trauma in the family was characteristic of the sample. We also found differences in SWB across profiles of participants, with worse SWB in the profiles with the highest lack of knowledge about WWII-related traumatic experiences in the family. CONCLUSION: Our study adds to the literature on intergenerational trauma by applying a person-centred perspective, a methodological approach almost invisible in research on that topic. In addition, our findings can serve as a stimulus for more comprehensive debate on WWII trauma in Polish society.

Posttraumatic stress symptoms among Polish World War II survivors: the role of social acknowledgement.

Background: There is growing evidence of the important role played by socio-interpersonal variables on the maintenance of PTSD. Many World War II survivors in Poland could, as a result of political circumstances during the aftermath of the war, have experienced a lack of social recognition of their war-related trauma. Objective: The main aim of the study was to examine the association between perceived social reactions and the level of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSD) and depression. Method: Participants (N = 120) were aged 71-97 years (M = 82.44; SD = 6.14). They completed a WWII trauma-related questionnaire, the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (PDS), the Impact of Events Scale (IES) and Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI). The Social Acknowledgement Questionnaire (SAQ) was used to measure participants' perception of others' acknowledgement and disapproval of their war trauma. Results: The rate of probable PTSD, diagnosed according to DSM-IV, was 38.3%. PTSD symptoms and General Disapproval were significantly correlated for all three PTSD symptom groups (Pearson's r ranged from .25 to .41). The structural equation modelling results also demonstrated the importance of General Disapproval with regard to the level of PTSD symptoms. It explained both the intensity of PTSD symptoms (13.4% of variance) and the level of depression (12.0% of variance). Conclusion: In addition to confirming the high rate of PTSD among WWII survivors in Poland, the results indicate the importance of social reactions to survivors' traumatic experiences.

Contexto: hay una evidencia creciente del importante papel que juegan las variables socio- interpersonales sobre el Trastorno de Estrés Postraumático (TEPT). En Polonia, muchos supervivientes de la segunda guerra mundial pudieron experimentar, como resultado de las circunstancias políticas después de la guerra, una falta de reconocimiento social del trauma que habían desarrollado como resultadi de la guerra. Objetivo: El principal de este estudio fue el examinar la asociación entre las reacciones sociales percibidas y el nivel de síntomas de estrés postraumático(TPET) y depresión. Método: Los participantes (N= 120) tenían entre los 71 y 97 años ((M=82.44; SD=6.14). Completaron un cuestionario relacionado con trauma en la segunda guerra mundial, la escala diagnostica postraumática (PDS), la escala de impacto de eventos (IES) y el inventario de depresión de Beck (BDI). El cuestionario de reconocimiento social (SAQ; Maercker & Müller, 2004) fue utilizado para medir la percepción de los participantes del reconocimiento o rechazo de su trauma bélico por parte de otras personas. Resultados: La tasa de TEPT probable, diagnosticado de acuerdo al DSM IV, fue del 38.3%. Los síntomas de TEPT y la desaprobación general se encontraban correlacionados fuertemente con los tres grupos de síntomas de TEPT (la r de Pearson se situaba entre .25 a .41). Los resultados del modelamiento de la ecuación estructural también demostraron la importancia de la desaprobación general en relación con el nivel de síntomas de TEPT. Explicaba tanto la intensidad de los síntomas (13.4% de la varianza) como el nivel de depresión (12.0% de la varianza).

The Polish adaptation of the Life Events Checklist (LEC-5) for PTSD criteria from DSM-5. / Polska adaptacja narzedzia pomiaru ekspozycji na traumatyczne zdarzenia wedlug definicji DSM-5: Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5).

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was the Polish adaptation of the Life Events Checklist (LEC-5), which is used to assess individual's traumatic events exposure for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) criteria from DSM-5. METHODS: The study was conducted on 172 students of the University of Finance and Management in Warsaw, i.e., 68 women and 104 men, at the age between 17 and 49 (M = 22.74; SD = 6.80). Reliability of LEC-5 was measured by the absolute stability method. Two repeated measurements with two week interval were conducted on the sample of 40 students of the University of Finance and Management. Validity of LEC-5 was checked by the correlational analysis between the LEC-5 scales and the PTSD Diagnostic Scale for DSM-5 (PDS-5) and the Impact of Events Scale (IES) on the whole 172 sample of students. RESULTS: The magnitude of interclass correlation coefficients for all LEC-5 scales and high values of Cohen's kappa coefficients proved a high reliability of this tool. Significant correlations between all LEC-5 scales and PDS-5 and IES scales were also obtained, which proved satisfactory validity of LEC-5. CONCLUSIONS: Obtained empirical results proved satisfying psychometric properties of LEC-5.

PTSD prevalence among Polish World War II survivors. / Rozpowszechnienie PTSD wsród osób, które przezyly II wojne swiatowa w Polsce.

OBJECTIVES: Over the past decade research has been published in several Western European countries on the prevalence of PTSD among World War II survivors, mostly civilians. Prevalence rates ranged from 1.9% to 10.8 %. The aim of the study was to measure the frequency of PTSD occurrence among Polish WWII survivors. METHODS: Data from 96 persons: 59 women and 37 men, aged 70-96 were analyzed. All participants were born before 1945. They completed Polish adaptations of: Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (PDS), Impact of Events Scale (IES), Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI) and WWII trauma related questionnaire. RESULTS: Prevalence rate of potential PTSD was 32,3% Mean values of both number and severity of symptoms of PTSD were significantly higher for respondents with at least one war related trauma comparing to the participants who did note relate any such trauma. CONCLUSIONS: Comparing to other studies on WWII related PTSD the prevalence rate of possible PTSD was very high. Looking for possible explanation of such results seems to be an important challenge.

The validation of the Polish version of the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale and its factor structure.

BACKGROUND: Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (PDS) is a self-descriptive measure developed to provide information regarding posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnosis and symptom severity. OBJECTIVES: THE AIM OF THIS ARTICLE IS TO REPORT ON THE VALIDATION OF THE POLISH VERSION OF PDS AND TO TEST ITS FACTOR STRUCTURE WITH REFERENCE TO TWO MODELS: an original three-factor model (Reexperiencing, Avoidance, and Arousal) and alternative five-factor model (Reexperiencing, Avoidance, Numbing, Dysphoric Arousal, and Anxious Arousal). METHOD: THE VALIDATION PROCEDURE INCLUDED THREE STUDIES CONDUCTED ON SAMPLES OF SEPARATE POPULATIONS: university-level students (n=507), individuals who had experienced various traumas (n=320), and treatment-seeking survivors of motor vehicle accidents (MVA) (n=302). Various other measures of trauma-related psychopathology were administered to participants, as well as the PTSD module of the Structured Clinical Interview (SCID) in the case of MVA patients. RESULTS: PDS showed high internal consistency and test-retest reliability, good diagnostic agreement with SCID, good sensitivity but relatively low specificity. The satisfactory convergent validity was supported by a large number of significant correlations with other measures of trauma-related psychopathology. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) generally confirmed both the three-factor structure and the alternative five-factor structure of the questionnaire. CONCLUSIONS: The results show generally good psychometric properties of the Polish version of PDS.