The One Pill Can Kill Myth.

ABSTRACT: "One Pill Can Kill" is a meme originating in the 1990s. This construct lists pharmaceuticals that have the alleged potential for fatality after the ingestion of a single pill by a toddler. However, its foundation is fundamentally flawed because it contravenes a basic principle of pediatric pharmacology, allometric scaling. Other than opioids, there are no literature examples of one pill killing a toddler. The negative outcome of the one pill can kill construct is inappropriate management manifested by over-referral of young children by poison centers to emergency departments for care, overly prolonged emergency department observation and needless hospital admissions. A more accurate construct is that one pill of anything other than opioids will not kill anybody with the caveat being that we are referring to regulated pharmaceuticals.

The role of whole bowel irrigation in the treatment of toxic ingestions.

There is no high-quality evidence regarding the benefit of any gastrointestinal decontamination procedure in the overdose patient. The original and twice reaffirmed position of the AACT and EAPCCT is based upon the best evidence and practical considerations. WBI was recommended as a treatment for the ingestion of modified release pharmaceuticals, iron salts and other substances not adsorbed by activated charcoal. This is a best evidence recommendation.

Age and the risk of All-Terrain Vehicle-related injuries in children and adolescents: a cross sectional study.

BACKGROUND: The study was designed to determine if youth <16 years are at a greater risk of serious injuries related to all-terrain vehicle (ATV) use compared to older adolescents and adults. METHODS: We performed cross sectional study of children and adults presenting to pediatric and adult emergency departments between 1990 and 2009 in Canada. The primary exposure variable was age <16 years and the primary outcome measure was moderate to serious injury determined from physician report of type and severity of injury. RESULTS: Among 5005 individuals with complete data, 58% were <16 years and 35% were admitted to hospital. The odds of a moderate to serious injury versus minor injury among ATV users <16 years of age was not different compared with those ≥16 years of age (OR: 0.94; 95% CI: 0.84, 1.06). After adjusting for era, helmet use, sex and driver status, youth <16 years were more likely to present with a head injury (aOR: 1.45; 95% CI: 1.19-1.77) or fractures (aOR: 1.60; 95% CI: 1.43-1.81), compared with those ≥16 years. Male participants (aOR: 1.21; 95% CI: 1.06-1.38) and drivers (aOR: 1.30, 95% CI: 1.12-1.51) were more likely to experience moderate or serious injuries than females and passengers. Helmet use was associated with significant protection from head injuries (aOR: 0.59; 95% CI: 0.44-0.78). CONCLUSIONS: Youth under 16 years are at an increased risk of head injuries and fractures. For youth and adults presenting to emergency departments with an ATV-related injury, moderate to serious injuries associated with ATV use are more common among drivers and males. Helmet use protected against head injuries, suggesting minimum age limits for ATV use and helmet use are warranted.

American Academy of Pediatrics Recommendations for the Prevention of Pediatric ATV-Related Deaths and Injuries.

Since all-terrain vehicles (ATVs) were introduced in the mid-1970s, regulatory agencies, injury prevention researchers, and pediatricians have documented their dangers to youth. Major risk factors, crash mechanisms, and injury patterns for children and adolescents have been well characterized. Despite this knowledge, preventing pediatric ATV-related deaths and injuries has proven difficult and has had limited success. This policy statement broadly summarizes key background information and provides detailed recommendations based on best practices. These recommendations are designed to provide all stakeholders with strategies that can be used to reduce the number of pediatric deaths and injuries resulting from youth riding on ATVs.

Management of childhood intussusception after reduction by enema.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to describe the utility of emergency department (ED)/outpatient management after enema reduction for childhood intussusception. METHODS: A retrospective medical record review of children aged 2 months to 6 years with confirmed intussusception who underwent enema reduction in a tertiary care academic children's hospital was performed. Subjects were analyzed with respect to location of care after reduction (ED/outpatient vs inpatient) and number, timing, and outcome of recurrences. RESULTS: One hundred seventeen patients were diagnosed with intussusception by contrast or air enema during the 15-year study period, and 56 fulfilled our inclusion criteria. Ten patients (18%) were admitted to hospital after enema reduction. Mean length of stay was 33.7 hours in the hospitalized group and 7 hours in the ED group. Seven of the 56 patients had recurrences (12.5% recurrence rate). Two recurred while being observed in the ED (at 30 minutes and at 2 hours after reduction), 2 recurred at home (at 10 and 28 hours after reduction), and the other 3 recurred several months later. The early recurrence rate (recurring within 24 hours) was 5.3%. No patient had an adverse event (perforation, sepsis, bowel resection). CONCLUSIONS: Outpatient management is used for the majority of patients with intussusception at our institution after enema reduction. The early recurrence rate is low, and patients with recurrence after discharge do well without adverse outcomes. Emergency department observation of patients after enema reduction appears to be safe and should be routine for uncomplicated cases of intussusception.

Key Findings and Implications of a Recent Systematic Review of the Potential Adverse Effects of Caffeine Consumption in Healthy Adults, Pregnant Women, Adolescents, and Children.

In 2016⁻2017, we conducted and published a systematic review on caffeine safety that set out to determine whether conclusions that were presented in the heavily cited Health Canada assessment, remain supported by more recent data. To that end, we reviewed data from 380 studies published between June 2001 and June 2015, which were identified from an initial batch of over 5000 articles through a stringent search and evaluation process. In the current paper, we use plain language to summarize our process and findings, with the intent of sharing additional context for broader reach to the general public. We addressed whether caffeine doses previously determined not to be associated with adverse effects by Health Canada (400 mg/day for healthy adults, 300 mg/day for pregnant women, 2.5 mg/kg body weight/day for adolescents and children, and 10 g/day for acute effects) remain appropriate for five outcome areas (acute toxicity, cardiovascular toxicity, bone & calcium effects, behavior, and development and reproduction) in healthy adults, pregnant women, adolescents, and children. We used a weight-of-evidence approach to draw conclusions for each of the five outcomes, as well as more specific endpoints within those outcomes, which considered study quality, consistency, level of adversity, and magnitude of response. In general, updated evidence confirms the levels of intake that were put forth by Health Canada in 2003 as not being associated with any adverse health effects, and our results support a shift in caffeine research from healthy to sensitive populations.

Systematic review of the potential adverse effects of caffeine consumption in healthy adults, pregnant women, adolescents, and children.

To date, one of the most heavily cited assessments of caffeine safety in the peer-reviewed literature is that issued by Health Canada (Nawrot et al., 2003). Since then, >10,000 papers have been published related to caffeine, including hundreds of reviews on specific human health effects; however, to date, none have compared the wide range of topics evaluated by Nawrot et al. (2003). Thus, as an update to this foundational publication, we conducted a systematic review of data on potential adverse effects of caffeine published from 2001 to June 2015. Subject matter experts and research team participants developed five PECO (population, exposure, comparator, and outcome) questions to address five types of outcomes (acute toxicity, cardiovascular toxicity, bone and calcium effects, behavior, and development and reproduction) in four healthy populations (adults, pregnant women, adolescents, and children) relative to caffeine intake doses determined not to be associated with adverse effects by Health Canada (comparators: 400 mg/day for adults [10 g for lethality], 300 mg/day for pregnant women, and 2.5 mg/kg/day for children and adolescents). The a priori search strategy identified >5000 articles that were screened, with 381 meeting inclusion/exclusion criteria for the five outcomes (pharmacokinetics was addressed contextually, adding 46 more studies). Data were extracted by the research team and rated for risk of bias and indirectness (internal and external validity). Selected no- and low-effect intakes were assessed relative to the population-specific comparator. Conclusions were drawn for the body of evidence for each outcome, as well as endpoints within an outcome, using a weight of evidence approach. When the total body of evidence was evaluated and when study quality, consistency, level of adversity, and magnitude of response were considered, the evidence generally supports that consumption of up to 400 mg caffeine/day in healthy adults is not associated with overt, adverse cardiovascular effects, behavioral effects, reproductive and developmental effects, acute effects, or bone status. Evidence also supports consumption of up to 300 mg caffeine/day in healthy pregnant women as an intake that is generally not associated with adverse reproductive and developmental effects. Limited data were identified for child and adolescent populations; the available evidence suggests that 2.5 mg caffeine/kg body weight/day remains an appropriate recommendation. The results of this systematic review support a shift in caffeine research to focus on characterizing effects in sensitive populations and establishing better quantitative characterization of interindividual variability (e.g., epigenetic trends), subpopulations (e.g., unhealthy populations, individuals with preexisting conditions), conditions (e.g., coexposures), and outcomes (e.g., exacerbation of risk-taking behavior) that could render individuals to be at greater risk relative to healthy adults and healthy pregnant women. This review, being one of the first to apply systematic review methodologies to toxicological assessments, also highlights the need for refined guidance and frameworks unique to the conduct of systematic review in this field.

Home safety measures and the risk of unintentional injury among young children: a multicentre case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Young children may sustain injuries when exposed to certain hazards in the home. To better understand the relation between several childproofing strategies and the risk of injuries to children in the home, we undertook a multicentre case-control study in which we compared hazards in the homes of children with and without injuries. METHODS: We conducted this case-control study using records from 5 pediatric hospital emergency departments for the 2-year period 1995-1996. The 351 case subjects were children aged 7 years and less who presented with injuries from falls, burns or scalds, ingestions or choking. The matched control subjects were children who presented during the same period with acute non-injury-related conditions. A home visitor, blinded to case-control status, assessed 19 injury hazards at the children's homes. RESULTS: Hazards found in the homes included baby walkers (21% of homes with infants), no functioning smoke alarm (17% of homes) and no fire extinguisher (51% of homes). Cases did not differ from controls in the mean proportion of home hazards. After controlling for siblings, maternal education and employment, we found that cases differed from controls for 5 hazards: the presence of a baby walker (odds ratio [OR] 9.0, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.1-71.0), the presence of choking hazards within a child's reach (OR 2.0, 95% CI 1.0-3.7), no child-resistant lids in bathroom (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.0-2.5), no smoke alarm (OR 3.2, 95% CI 1.4-7.7) and no functioning smoke alarm (OR 1.7, 95% CI 1.0-2.8). INTERPRETATION: Homes of children with injuries differed from those of children without injuries in the proportions of specific hazards for falls, choking, poisoning and burns, with a striking difference noted for the presence of a baby walker. In addition to counselling parents about specific hazards, clinicians should consider that the presence of some hazards may indicate an increased risk for home injuries beyond those directly related to the hazard found. Families with any home hazard may be candidates for interventions to childproof against other types of home hazards.

Unit-dose packaging of iron supplements and reduction of iron poisoning in young children.

BACKGROUND: Iron poisoning is a major cause of unintentional poisoning death in young children. The US Food and Drug Administration proclaimed a regulation for unit-dose packaging of iron supplements in 1997. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the requirement for unit-dose packaging of iron supplements decreases the incidence of iron ingestion and the incidence of deaths due to iron poisoning in children younger than 6 years. METHODS: This is a preintervention-postintervention study of the US federally mandated requirement for unit-dose packaging of iron supplements. The 10 years prior to the intervention were compared with the 5 years after its promulgation. The incidences of iron ingestion and of iron poisoning deaths for children younger than 6 years were obtained from the annual reports of the American Association of Poison Control Centers (Washington, DC). RESULTS: The average number of iron ingestion calls per 1000 of all calls to poison control centers regarding children younger than 6 years decreased from 2.99 per 1000 to 1.91 per 1000 (odds ratio, 1.29 [95% confidence interval, 1.27-1.32]; P<.001). The number of deaths decreased from 29 to 1 (odds ratio, 13.56 [95% confidence interval, 1.85-99.52]; P = .03). CONCLUSIONS: These are the first data that show a decrease in the incidence of nonintentional ingestion of a specific drug by young children and a decrease in mortality from poisoning by this drug after the introduction of unit-dose packaging. There was a decrease in the incidence of iron ingestion and a dramatic decrease in the number of deaths due to iron poisoning. This validates unit-dose packaging as an effective strategy for the prevention of iron poisoning and iron poisoning deaths in young children. This highly effective intervention should be considered for other medications with a high hazard for morbidity and mortality when taken as an overdose.

Acute pancreatitis due to erythromycin overdose.

BACKGROUND: Antibiotic overdose is typically regarded as a benign event. We report a 15-year-old girl who developed pancreatitis after an overdose of erythromycin. CASE: A 15-year-old girl presented for care because of severe epigastric pain after an overdose of 5.3 g (16 x 333 mg tablets) of erythromycin base. Her physical examination was normal except for epigastric tenderness. Her serum lipase was 2024 U/L (normal, <60). She was treated with intravenous fluids and an opiate analgesic. Her serum lipase declined to 1834 and 73 U/L at 17 and 36 hours, respectively, after the initial measurement at which time she was asymptomatic. CONCLUSION: Our case supports transient pancreatitis as a potential consequence of erythromycin overdose.

Assessment of clinically significant changes in acute pain in children.

OBJECTIVE: To quantify, using two pain assessment scales, the amount of change in pain severity required to achieve a clinically significant improvement in pain in children presenting to a pediatric emergency department (ED) with pain. METHODS: Prospective, descriptive study involving all children presenting to a pediatric ED between 5 and 16 years of age inclusive with acute pain. Children were excluded if they 1) were intoxicated or had altered sensorium, 2) were clinically unstable, 3) were non-English-speaking, or 4) were developmentally delayed. Written informed consent was obtained. Children were asked to mark their current pain severity on the standardized Color Analogue Scale (CAS) and Faces Pain Scale (FPS). After each pain control intervention the child was asked to repeat these measurements and to describe whether his or her pain was "much less," "a little less," "about the same," "a little worse," or "much worse" compared with before. This process was repeated until the child was discharged from the ED or had a score of zero. The main outcome measure was the smallest change on the CAS or FPS necessary to cause the child to describe his or her pain as a "little less." This was defined as the clinically significant change in pain. The "ideal" change in pain was defined as the amount of change necessary for the child to describe the pain as "much less" or at which point the child thought he or she no longer required any medicine to help the pain go away. RESULTS: One hundred twenty-one children were enrolled with a mean age of 9.8 years (SD +/- 3.15). Males accounted for 56%. Pain was traumatic in 65% and nontraumatic in 35%. A total of 153 pain comparisons were made using the CAS and 154 using the FPS. Only three children complained that their pain got worse (two a little worse and one much worse). Pain was described as "the same" in 20. Of the 60 pain comparisons judged to be a "little less," the CAS score changed by a median of 2.0 cm [interquartile ratio (IQR) 1-3], and the FPS by 1.0 face (IQR 1-2). In the 71 children who judged their pain to be "much less," the CAS decreased by a median of 4.0 cm (IQR 2-5) and the FPS by 2.0 faces (IQR 2-3). CONCLUSIONS: The assessment and treatment of pain in children are an important component of pediatric practice, especially in the ED. This study provides health care professionals and clinical investigators the information necessary to assess whether their method of pain control in children is clinically relevant.

Analgesic use in children with acute abdominal pain.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To determine the frequency of analgesic use in children (5 to 17 years inclusive) who present to a pediatric emergency department with acute abdominal pain. METHODS: A retrospective medical record review of patients presenting to a children's hospital over a 1-year period with a chief complaint of abdominal pain and subsequently referred to the pediatric surgical service. The records were reviewed to determine emergency department analgesic use, patient disposition, and laparotomy rate. RESULTS: Two hundred ninety patients met our inclusion criteria. Of the patients seen initially by emergency physicians, 14.3% received analgesics, while those seen directly by the surgical service received analgesia 15.4% of the time. The laparotomy rate for the 290 patients was 46.6%. CONCLUSIONS: Analgesic use in children who present to the emergency department with acute abdominal pain and require a surgical consultation was very low, although half required a laparotomy. Prospective studies are needed to determine the efficacy and safety of analgesic use in this setting.

Severe vitamin D deficiency in 6 Canadian First Nation formula-fed infants.

BACKGROUND: Rickets was first described in the 17th century and vitamin D deficiency was recognized as the underlying cause in the early 1900s. Despite this long history, vitamin D deficiency remains a significant health concern. Currently, vitamin D supplementation is recommended in Canada for breast fed infants. There are no recommendations for supplementation in formula-fed infants. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this report is to bring attention to the risk of severe vitamin D deficiency in high risk, formula fed infants. DESIGN: A retrospective chart review was used to create this clinical case series. RESULTS: Severe vitamin D deficiency was diagnosed in six formula-fed infants over a two-and-a-half year period. All six infants presented with seizures and they resided in First Nation communities located at latitude 54 in the province of Manitoba. While these infants had several risk factors for vitamin D deficiency, they were all receiving cow's milk based formula supplemented with 400 IU/L of vitamin D. CONCLUSION: This report suggests that current practice with regards to vitamin D supplementation may be inadequate, especially for high-risk infants. Health care professionals providing service to infants in a similar situation should be aware of this preventable condition. Hopefully this would contribute to its prevention, diagnosis and management.

Do you really need that emergency drug screen?

INTRODUCTION: A drug screen is a frequent investigation in the emergency department. The purpose of ordering this test is to determine whether the patient's condition is due to a drug. The purpose of this review is to address the question - do you really need that emergency drug screen? BACKGROUND: A screening test is an investigation performed upon a defined population to identify subclinical disease. A diagnostic test confirms a specific disease in a particular patient who is at risk of that condition because of the medical history or physical examination. Diagnostic tests have optimal performance characteristics that differ from those of screening tests. Therefore, an optimal screening test cannot be an optimal diagnostic test. LITERATURE REVIEW: The relevant literature was identified through electronic search augmented by subsequent search of reference lists of the primarily identified publications. Articles not dealing with emergency qualitative urine drug screening of emergency department patients were not considered. RESULTS: There were seven retrospective case series describing 1,405 patients, one prospective case series of 196 patients, and one randomized trial of 117 patients. There were three retrospective case series describing 694 children. For patients presenting with psychiatric symptoms, there were two retrospective case series totaling 557 patients and one randomized trial of 392. There were three retrospective case series in 3,509 multiple trauma patients. There was no significant impact upon the management of these patients in the emergency department. CONCLUSION: The emergency drug screen is unlikely to impact significantly upon the management of the patient in the emergency department.

Early analgesia for children with acute abdominal pain.

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were to determine whether the administration of morphine to children with acute abdominal pain would impede the diagnosis of appendicitis and to determine the efficacy of morphine in relieving the pain. METHODS: This was a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial involving 5- to 16-year-old children who presented to the emergency department of a children's hospital with a chief complaint of acute abdominal pain that was thought by the pediatric emergency attending physician to require a surgical consultation. Subjects were randomized to receive intravenously administered morphine or normal saline solution. Clinical data and the emergency physician's confidence in his or her clinical diagnosis (0-100%) were recorded systematically with a standardized form. This was repeated 15 minutes after administration of the study medication. The surgeon assessed the child within 1 hour and completed a similar data collection sheet. Pain was assessed, with a color analog scale, before and after study medication administration. Each subject was monitored for 2 weeks after enrollment. RESULTS: One hundred eight children were enrolled; 52 received morphine and 56 received a placebo saline solution. There were no differences between groups in demographic variables or the degree of pain. There were no differences between groups in the diagnoses of appendicitis or perforated appendicitis or the number of children who were observed and then underwent laparotomy. The reduction in the mean pain score was significantly greater in the morphine group (2.2 vs 1.2 cm). The emergency physicians' and surgeons' confidence in their diagnoses was not affected by the administration of morphine. CONCLUSIONS: Our data show that morphine effectively reduces the intensity of pain among children with acute abdominal pain and morphine does not seem to impede the diagnosis of appendicitis.