Forecasting daily total pollen concentrations on a global scale.

BACKGROUND: There is evidence that global anthropogenic climate change may be impacting floral phenology and the temporal and spatial characteristics of aero-allergenic pollen. Given the extent of current and future climate uncertainty, there is a need to strengthen predictive pollen forecasts. METHODS: The study aims to use CatBoost (CB) and deep learning (DL) models for predicting the daily total pollen concentration up to 14 days in advance for 23 cities, covering all five continents. The model includes the projected environmental parameters, recent concentrations (1, 2 and 4 weeks), and the past environmental explanatory variables, and their future values. RESULTS: The best pollen forecasts include Mexico City (R2(DL_7) ≈ .7), and Santiago (R2(DL_7) ≈ .8) for the 7th forecast day, respectively; while the weakest pollen forecasts are made for Brisbane (R2(DL_7) ≈ .4) and Seoul (R2(DL_7) ≈ .1) for the 7th forecast day. The global order of the five most important environmental variables in determining the daily total pollen concentrations is, in decreasing order: the past daily total pollen concentration, future 2 m temperature, past 2 m temperature, past soil temperature in 28-100 cm depth, and past soil temperature in 0-7 cm depth. City-related clusters of the most similar distribution of feature importance values of the environmental variables only slightly change on consecutive forecast days for Caxias do Sul, Cape Town, Brisbane, and Mexico City, while they often change for Sydney, Santiago, and Busan. CONCLUSIONS: This new knowledge of the ecological relationships of the most remarkable variables importance for pollen forecast models according to clusters, cities and forecast days is important for developing and improving the accuracy of airborne pollen forecasts.

Association between lung function of school age children and short-term exposure to air pollution and pollen: the PARIS cohort.

BACKGROUND: Daily levels of ambient air pollution and pollen may affect lung function but have rarely been studied together. We investigated short-term exposure to pollen and air pollution in relation to lung function in school-age children from a French population-based birth cohort. METHODS: This study included 1063 children from the PARIS (Pollution and Asthma Risk: an Infant Study) cohort whose lung function and FeNO measurements were performed at age 8 years old. Exposure data were collected up to 4 days before testing. We estimated daily total pollen concentration, daily allergenic risk indices for nine pollen taxa, as well as daily concentrations of three air pollutants (particulate matter less than 10 µm (PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3)). Children with similar pollen and air pollution exposure were grouped using multidimensional longitudinal cluster analysis. Associations between clusters of pollen and air pollution exposure and respiratory indices (FEV1, FVC, FeNO) were studied using multivariable linear and logistic regression models adjusted for potential confounders. RESULTS: Four clusters of exposure were identified: no pollen and low air pollution (Cluster 1), grass pollen (Cluster 2), PM10 (Cluster 3) and birch/plane-tree pollen with high total pollen count (Cluster 4). Compared with children in Cluster 1, children in Cluster 2 had significantly lower FEV1 and FVC levels, and children from Cluster 3 had higher FeNO levels. For FEV1 and FVC, the associations appeared stronger in children with current asthma. Additional analysis suggested a joint effect of grass pollen and air pollution on lung function. CONCLUSION: Daily ambient chemical and biological air quality could adversely influence lung function in children.

Heterogeneity of pollen food allergy syndrome in seven Southern European countries: The @IT.2020 multicenter study.

BACKGROUND: Pollen food allergy syndrome (PFAS) is a frequently underdiagnosed disease due to diverse triggers, clinical presentations, and test results. This is especially relevant in geographic areas with a broad spectrum of pollen sensitization, such as Southern Europe. OBJECTIVES: To elucidate similarities and differences of PFAS in nine Southern European centers and identify associated characteristics and unique markers of PFAS. METHODS: As part of the @IT.2020 Multicenter Study, 815 patients with seasonal allergic rhinitis (SAR), aged 10-60 years, were recruited in seven countries. They completed questionnaires regarding SAR, comorbidities, family history, and PFAS, and underwent skin prick testing (SPT) and serum IgE testing. RESULTS: Of the 815 patients, 167 (20.5%) reported PFAS reactions. Most commonly, eliciting foods were kiwi (58, 34.7%), peach (43, 25.7%), and melon (26, 15.6%). Reported reactions were mostly local (216/319, 67.7%), occurring within 5 min of contact with elicitors (209/319, 65.5%). Associated characteristics included positive IgE to at least one panallergen (profilin, PR-10, or nsLTP) (p = 0.007), maternal PFAS (OR: 3.716, p = 0.026), and asthma (OR: 1.752, p = 0.073). Between centers, heterogeneity in prevalence (Marseille: 7.5% vs. Rome: 41.4%, p < 0.001) and of clinical characteristics was apparent. Cypress played a limited role, with only 1/22 SPT mono-sensitized patients reporting a food reaction (p < 0.073). CONCLUSIONS: PFAS is a frequent comorbidity in Southern European SAR patients. Significant heterogeneity of clinical characteristics in PFAS patients among the centers was observed and may be related to the different pollen sensitization patterns in each geographic area. IgE to panallergen(s), maternal PFAS, and asthma could be PFAS-associated characteristics.

Pollen season is reflected on symptom load for grass and birch pollen-induced allergic rhinitis in different geographic areas-An EAACI Task Force Report.

BACKGROUND: The effectiveness of allergen immunotherapy (AIT) in seasonal and perennial allergic rhinitis (AR) depends on the definition of pollen exposure intensity or time period. We recently evaluated pollen and symptom data from Germany to examine the new definitions of the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) on pollen season and peak pollen period start and end. Now, we aim to confirm the feasibility of these definitions to properly mirror symptom loads for grass and birch pollen-induced allergic rhinitis in other European geographical areas such as Austria, Finland and France, and therefore their suitability for AIT and clinical practice support. METHODS: Data from twenty-three pollen monitoring stations from three countries in Europe and for 3 years (2014-2016) were used to investigate the correlation between birch and grass pollen concentrations during the birch and grass pollen season defined via the EAACI criteria, and total nasal symptom and medication scores as reported with the aid of the patient's hay-fever diary (PHD). In addition, we conducted a statistical analysis, together with a graphical investigation, to reveal correlations and dependencies between the studied parameters. RESULTS: The analysis demonstrated that the definitions of pollen season as well as peak pollen period start and end as proposed by the EAACI are correlated to pollen-induced symptom loads reported by PHD users during birch and grass pollen season. A statistically significant correlation (slightly higher for birch) has been found between the Total Nasal Symptom and Medication Score (TNSMS) and the pollen concentration levels. Moreover, the maximum symptom levels occurred mostly within the peak pollen periods (PPP) following the EAACI criteria. CONCLUSIONS: Based on our analyses, we confirm the validity of the EAACI definitions on pollen season for both birch and grass and for a variety of geographical locations for the four European countries (including Germany from a previous publication) analyzed so far. On this basis, the use of the EAACI definitions is supported in future clinical trials on AIT as well as in daily routine for optimal patient care. Further evaluation of the EAACI criteria in other European regions is recommended.

"Whole" vs. "fragmented" approach to EAACI pollen season definitions: A multicenter study in six Southern European cities.

BACKGROUND: The adequate definition of pollen seasons is essential to facilitate a correct diagnosis, treatment choice, and outcome assessment in patients with seasonal allergic rhinitis. A position paper by the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) proposed season definitions for Northern and Middle Europe. OBJECTIVE: To test the pollen season definitions proposed by EAACI in six Mediterranean cities for seven pollen taxa. METHODS: As part of the @IT.2020 multi-center study, pollen counts for Poaceae, Oleaceae, Fagales, Cupressaceae, Urticaceae (Parietaria spp.), and Compositae (Ambrosia spp., Artemisia spp.) were collected from January 1 to December 31, 2018. Based on these data, pollen seasons were identified according to EAACI criteria. A unified monitoring period for patients in AIT trials was created and assessed for feasibility. RESULTS: The analysis revealed a great heterogeneity between the different locations in terms of pattern and length of the examined pollen seasons. Further, we found a fragmentation of pollen seasons in several segments (max. 8) separated by periods of low pollen counts (intercurrent periods). Potential monitoring periods included often many recording days with low pollen exposure (max. 341 days). CONCLUSION: The Mediterranean climate leads to challenging pollen exposure times. Monitoring periods for AIT trials based on existing definitions may include many intermittent days with low pollen concentrations. Therefore, it is necessary to find an adapted pollen season definition as individual solution for each pollen and geographical area.

Inventory of the Recommendations for Patients with Pollen Allergies and Evaluation of Their Scientific Relevance.

Pollens are responsible for allergic rhinitis, conjunctivitis, and asthma. The incidence of these diseases, which have adversely impacted the social and professional lives of people who are allergic to pollen, has tripled in the past 25 years. Official institutes, health care institutions, public interest groups, and mainstream news media provide people who are allergic to pollen with advice aimed at reducing their symptoms. The aim of this work was to provide an inventory of the prevention guidelines in the world and to evaluate their scientific relevance. A PubMed search was carried out using specific keywords. The scientific relevance of the recommendations was evaluated based on the publications disproving or confirming their merit. The guidelines issued by 12 countries in Europe, North America, and Australia were inventoried. The recommendations for avoidance were most often based on scientific data regarding their impact on pollen exposures, but they have not been clinically validated. Several studies provided additional details, however, that allowed the guidelines to be further substantiated. These guidelines have been adopted in numerous industrialized countries in the world, and they generally appear to be of relevance.

Pollen limitation as a main driver of fruiting dynamics in oak populations.

In many perennial wind-pollinated plants, the dynamics of seed production is commonly known to be highly fluctuating from year to year and synchronised among individuals within populations. The proximate causes of such seeding dynamics, called masting, are still poorly understood in oak species that are widespread in the northern hemisphere, and whose fruiting dynamics dramatically impacts forest regeneration and biodiversity. Combining long-term surveys of oak airborne pollen amount and acorn production over large-scale field networks in temperate areas, and a mechanistic modelling approach, we found that the pollen dynamics is the key driver of oak masting. Mechanisms at play involved both internal resource allocation to pollen production synchronised among trees and spring weather conditions affecting the amount of airborne pollen available for reproduction. The sensitivity of airborne pollen to weather conditions might make oak masting and its ecological consequences highly sensitive to climate change.

Google Trends and pollen concentrations in allergy and airway diseases in France.

BACKGROUND: Google Trends (GTs) is a web-based surveillance tool that explores the searching trends of specific queries via Google. This tool proposes to reflect the real-life epidemiology of allergic rhinitis and asthma. However, the validation of GTs against pollen concentrations is missing at the country level. OBJECTIVES: In the present study, we used GTs (a) to compare the terms related to allergy in France, (b) to assess seasonal variations across the country for 5 years and (c) to compare GTs and pollen concentrations for 2016. METHODS: Google Trends queries were initially searched to investigate the terms reflecting pollen and allergic diseases. 13- and 5-year GTs were used in France. Then, 5-year GTs were assessed in all metropolitan French regions to assess the seasonality of GTs. Finally, GTs were compared with pollen concentrations (Réseau National de Surveillance en Aerobiology) for 2016 in seven regions (GTs) and corresponding cities (pollen concentrations). RESULTS: The combination of searches for "allergy" as a disease, "pollen" as a disease cause and "ragweed" as a plant was needed to fully assess the pollen season in France. "Asthma" did not show any seasonality. Using the 5-year GTs, an annual and clear seasonality of queries was found in all regions depending on the predicted pollen exposure for spring and a summer peak but not for winter peaks. The agreement between GT queries and pollen concentrations is usually poor except for spring trees and grasses. Moreover, cypress pollens are insufficiently reported by GTs. CONCLUSIONS: Google Trends cannot predict the pollen season in France.

Exposure to Cypress Pollens and Subsequent Symptoms: A Panel Study.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this panel study was to document the relationship between exposure to cypress pollen and allergic symptoms. METHODS: The study group included 47 patients with allergy to cypress pollen who completed a daily diary and a weekly evaluation of quality of life (QoL) during the cypress pollen season. Different patients were included in three consecutive pollen seasons: 2014-2015, 2015-2016, and 2016-2017. Daily cypress pollen counts were obtained from the National Aerobiological Network. Air pollution and meteorological data were recorded on a daily basis. The pollen-symptoms relationship was quantified by calculating odds ratios for an increase of 1 log of grains of pollen/m3, taking into account potential confounding factors. The QoL score was expressed with a beta coefficient that increased with 1 grain of pollen/m3. RESULTS: There was a marked increase in rhinitis and ocular symptoms during the pollen season, with a plateau effect at high levels of exposure, but no relationship with bronchial symptoms. The QoL score had a linear and significant relationship with the cypress pollen count. We did not detect any threshold level. CONCLUSION: This panel study demonstrated a significant association between exposure to cypress pollens and allergic symptoms, with a plateau effect for high exposures.

Near-ground effect of height on pollen exposure.

The effect of height on pollen concentration is not well documented and little is known about the near-ground vertical profile of airborne pollen. This is important as most measuring stations are on roofs, but patient exposure is at ground level. Our study used a big data approach to estimate the near-ground vertical profile of pollen concentrations based on a global study of paired stations located at different heights. We analyzed paired sampling stations located at different heights between 1.5 and 50 m above ground level (AGL). This provided pollen data from 59 Hirst-type volumetric traps from 25 different areas, mainly in Europe, but also covering North America and Australia, resulting in about 2,000,000 daily pollen concentrations analyzed. The daily ratio of the amounts of pollen from different heights per location was used, and the values of the lower station were divided by the higher station. The lower station of paired traps recorded more pollen than the higher trap. However, while the effect of height on pollen concentration was clear, it was also limited (average ratio 1.3, range 0.7-2.2). The standard deviation of the pollen ratio was highly variable when the lower station was located close to the ground level (below 10 m AGL). We show that pollen concentrations measured at >10 m are representative for background near-ground levels.

Five-Year Data on Pollen Monitoring, Distribution and Health Impact of Allergenic Plants in Bucharest and the Southeastern Region of Romania.

Background and objectives: Respiratory allergies induced by allergenic pollen represent an important public health problem with increasing prevalence and severity in Europe. Romania has no aerobiology network and pollen measurements have been done for about ten years in the west region only. Materials and Methods: We established the first pollen monitoring center in the capital of Bucharest in 2013, based on collaboration with the Réseau National de Surveillance Aérobiologique (RNSA) from France. The aim of our paper is to present results from five years of pollen monitoring in the city center of Bucharest and preliminary data on distribution and health impact of some allergenic plants, mainly Ambrosia artemisiifolia, which is considered a real danger for the public health. Results: Our data show a significant atmospheric amount and a longer season than previously considered of grass (Gramineae) pollen and short period with a high level of Ambrosia pollen, while tree pollen looks less important in this area. The plant distribution data provided by specialists and information from affected persons showed the wide and increasing spread of Ambrosia in Bucharest and other cities from the south region. Preliminary health data from allergists confirmed that the number of patients with allergies to Ambrosia pollen is increasing from one year to another and almost all patients describe a high urban exposure from their living or working place. Conclusions: We consider that the recently implemented Law 62/2018 against Ambrosia may help reduce weed distribution and the atmospheric pollen load, but a more complex and coordinated strategy for controlling urban vegetation and reducing biologic pollution is needed.

[Forests and allergies]. / Forêts et allergies.

OBJECTIVE: Many research papers have addressed the beneficial qualities of forests in promoting mental and physical health. However, we should also be clear that forest environments could have detrimental effects. Some of them, which are of allergic nature, have hitherto been largely neglected. METHODS: A comprehensive literature search has allowed us to achieve an initial synthesis on this matter. The emphasis was on temperate forests, especially on French forests. RESULTS: Anemophilous pollen from deciduous trees is the major factor causing respiratory allergies in connection with forests. The risks are focused between mid-winter and late spring. Ash, hornbeam and birch pollen and, more incidentally, oak and beech pollen induce allergic reactions not only in the forests, but also at great distances. As a result of its high humidity and because decaying organic matter is very abundant, the forest environment presents also a breeding ground for mould growth. Accordingly, fungal spores can lead to allergic manifestations recalling pollinosis. Lastly, the "other" allergies mainly include contact dermatitis symptoms, which affect wood workers first and foremost. However, the pine processionary moth, whose zone of infestation is rapidly spreading northwards and whose setae contain several relevant allergens, represents one particular case. CONCLUSION: Allergic reactions observed in forests or originating in forests are sufficiently frequent to justify to set up a wide-reaching system for aerobiological and epidemiological monitoring.

Differences in Reporting the Ragweed Pollen Season Using Google Trends across 15 Countries.

BACKGROUND: Google Trends (GT) searches trends of specific queries in Google, which potentially reflect the real-life epidemiology of allergic rhinitis. We compared GT terms related to ragweed pollen allergy in American and European Union countries with a known ragweed pollen season. Our aim was to assess seasonality and the terms needed to perform the GT searches and to compare these during the spring and summer pollen seasons. METHODS: We examined GT queries from January 1, 2011, to January 4, 2017. We included 15 countries with a known ragweed pollen season and used the standard 5-year GT graphs. We used the GT translation for all countries and the untranslated native terms for each country. RESULTS: The results of "pollen," "ragweed," and "allergy" searches differed between countries, but "ragweed" was clearly identified in 12 of the 15 countries. There was considerable heterogeneity of findings when the GT translation was used. For Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, and Slovenia, the GT translation was inappropriate. The country patterns of "pollen," "hay fever," and "allergy" differed in 8 of the 11 countries with identified "ragweed" queries during the spring and the summer, indicating that the perception of tree and grass pollen allergy differs from that of ragweed pollen. CONCLUSIONS: To investigate ragweed pollen allergy using GT, the term "ragweed" as a plant is required and the translation of "ragweed" in the native language needed.

The long distance transport of airborne Ambrosia pollen to the UK and the Netherlands from Central and south Europe.

The invasive alien species Ambrosia artemisiifolia (common or short ragweed) is increasing its range in Europe. In the UK and the Netherlands, airborne concentrations of Ambrosia pollen are usually low. However, more than 30 Ambrosia pollen grains per cubic metre of air (above the level capable to trigger allergic symptoms) were recorded in Leicester (UK) and Leiden (NL) on 4 and 5 September 2014. The aims of this study were to determine whether the highly allergenic Ambrosia pollen recorded during the episode could be the result of long distance transport, to identify the potential sources of these pollen grains and to describe the conditions that facilitated this possible long distance transport. Airborne Ambrosia pollen data were collected at 10 sites in Europe. Back trajectory and atmospheric dispersion calculations were performed using HYSPLIT_4. Back trajectories calculated at Leicester and Leiden show that higher altitude air masses (1500 m) originated from source areas on the Pannonian Plain and Ukraine. During the episode, air masses veered to the west and passed over the Rhône Valley. Dispersion calculations showed that the atmospheric conditions were suitable for Ambrosia pollen released from the Pannonian Plain and the Rhône Valley to reach the higher levels and enter the airstream moving to northwest Europe where they were deposited at ground level and recorded by monitoring sites. The study indicates that the Ambrosia pollen grains recorded during the episode in Leicester and Leiden were probably not produced by local sources but transported long distances from potential source regions in east Europe, i.e. the Pannonian Plain and Ukraine, as well as the Rhône Valley in France.

Variation of the group 5 grass pollen allergen content of airborne pollen in relation to geographic location and time in season.

BACKGROUND: Allergies to grass pollen are the number one cause of outdoor hay fever. The human immune system reacts with symptoms to allergen from pollen. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the natural variability in release of the major group 5 allergen from grass pollen across Europe. METHODS: Airborne pollen and allergens were simultaneously collected daily with a volumetric spore trap and a high-volume cascade impactor at 10 sites across Europe for 3 consecutive years. Group 5 allergen levels were determined with a Phl p 5-specific ELISA in 2 fractions of ambient air: particulate matter of greater than 10 µm in diameter and particulate matter greater than 2.5 µm and less than 10 µm in diameter. Mediator release by ambient air was determined in FcεRI-humanized basophils. The origin of pollen was modeled and condensed to pollen potency maps. RESULTS: On average, grass pollen released 2.3 pg of Phl p 5 per pollen. Allergen release per pollen (potency) varied substantially, ranging from less than 1 to 9 pg of Phl p 5 per pollen (5% to 95% percentile). The main variation was locally day to day. Average potency maps across Europe varied between years. Mediator release from basophilic granulocytes correlated better with allergen levels per cubic meter (r(2) = 0.80, P < .001) than with pollen grains per cubic meter (r(2) = 0.61, P < .001). In addition, pollen released different amounts of allergen in the non-pollen-bearing fraction of ambient air, depending on humidity. CONCLUSION: Across Europe, the same amount of pollen released substantially different amounts of group 5 grass pollen allergen. This variation in allergen release is in addition to variations in pollen counts. Molecular aerobiology (ie, determining allergen in ambient air) might be a valuable addition to pollen counting.

Effects of airborne birch pollen levels on clinical symptoms of seasonal allergic rhinoconjunctivitis.

BACKGROUND: Most panel studies focusing on rhinitis and conjunctivitis symptoms and birch pollen have been performed on a linear basis and have not included air pollution and meteorological variables as potential confounders. The objective of this panel study was to assess the relationship between symptoms of seasonal allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and daily airborne birch pollen concentrations, checking with adequate statistical tools the shapes of concentration-response curves and controlling for confounders. METHODS: The severity of rhinitis, conjunctivitis, and bronchial symptoms was recorded daily in March and April 2010 (3,311 person-days) in 61 seasonal allergic rhinoconjunctivitis patients sensitized to birch. Data were analyzed with generalized additive and generalized estimating equation models to quantify the effects of birch pollens. RESULTS: The relationship between birch pollen and the percentage of patients with nasal, ocular and bronchial symptoms was linear until birch daily average concentrations of, respectively, 110, 70, and 70 grains/m(3); it reached a plateau thereafter. For an increase of 10 grains/m(3), the OR (95% CI) for nasal, ocular, and bronchial symptoms were, respectively, 1.07 (1.03-1.12), 1.17 (1.08-1.27), and 1.12 (1.03-1.21). At the beginning of the season, no nasal or ocular symptoms were observed below a threshold of 30 grains/m(3). CONCLUSIONS: Adequate modeling regression shows that the clinical response to natural exposure to birch pollen in sensitized patients varies during Betula pollen season, with a threshold at the beginning of the season, while over the whole season the relationship is linear for nasal, ocular, and bronchial symptoms up to a saturation point, followed by a plateau.

Symptom control and health-related quality of life in allergic rhinitis with and without comorbid asthma: A multicentre European study.

BACKGROUND: Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a major non-communicable disease that affects the health-related quality of life (HRQoL) of patients. However, data on HRQoL and symptom control in AR patients with comorbid asthma (AR + asthma) are lacking. METHODS: In this multicentre, cross-sectional study, patients with AR were screened and administered questionnaires of demographic characteristics and health conditions (symptoms/diagnosis of AR and asthma, disease severity level, and allergic conditions). HRQoL was assessed using a modified version of the RHINASTHMA questionnaire (30, 'not at all bothered' - 150 'very much bothered') and symptom control was evaluated by a modified version of the Control of Allergic Rhinitis/Asthma Test (CARAT) (0, 'no control' - 30, 'very high control'). RESULTS: Out of 643 patients with AR, 500 (78%) had asthma as a comorbidity, and 54% had moderate-severe intermittent AR, followed by moderate-severe persistent AR (34%). Compared to the patients with AR alone, patients with AR + asthma had significantly higher RHINASTHMA (e.g., median RHINASTHMA-total score 48.5 vs. 84, respectively) and a significantly lower CARAT score (median CARAT-total score 23 vs. 16.5, respectively). Upon stratifying asthma based on severity, AR patients with severe persistent asthma had worse HRQoL and control than those with mild persistent asthma. The association was significantly higher among non-obese participants compared to obese ones, with RHINASTHMA-upper symptoms score but not with CARAT. CONCLUSIONS: Our observation of poorer HRQoL and symptoms control in AR patients with comorbid asthma supports the importance of a comprehensive approach for the management of AR in case of a comorbid allergic condition.

Co-exposure to highly allergenic airborne pollen and fungal spores in Europe.

The study is aimed at determining the potential spatiotemporal risk of the co-occurrence of airborne pollen and fungal spores high concentrations in different bio-climatic zones in Europe. Birch, grass, mugwort, ragweed, olive pollen and Alternaria and Cladosporium fungal spores were investigated at 16 sites in Europe, in 2005-2019. In Central and northern Europe, pollen and fungal spore seasons mainly overlap in June and July, while in South Europe, the highest pollen concentrations occur frequently outside of the spore seasons. In the coldest climate, no allergy thresholds were exceeded simultaneously by two spore or pollen taxa, while in the warmest climate most of the days with at least two pollen taxa exceeding threshold values were observed. The annual air temperature amplitude seems to be the main bioclimatic factor influencing the accumulation of days in which Alternaria and Cladosporium spores simultaneously exceed allergy thresholds. The phenomenon of co-occurrence of airborne allergen concentrations gets increasingly common in Europe and is proposed to be present on other continents, especially in temperate climate.

A temporally and spatially explicit, data-driven estimation of airborne ragweed pollen concentrations across Europe.

Ongoing and future climate change driven expansion of aeroallergen-producing plant species comprise a major human health problem across Europe and elsewhere. There is an urgent need to produce accurate, temporally dynamic maps at the continental level, especially in the context of climate uncertainty. This study aimed to restore missing daily ragweed pollen data sets for Europe, to produce phenological maps of ragweed pollen, resulting in the most complete and detailed high-resolution ragweed pollen concentration maps to date. To achieve this, we have developed two statistical procedures, a Gaussian method (GM) and deep learning (DL) for restoring missing daily ragweed pollen data sets, based on the plant's reproductive and growth (phenological, pollen production and frost-related) characteristics. DL model performances were consistently better for estimating seasonal pollen integrals than those of the GM approach. These are the first published modelled maps using altitude correction and flowering phenology to recover missing pollen information. We created a web page (http://euragweedpollen.gmf.u-szeged.hu/), including daily ragweed pollen concentration data sets of the stations examined and their restored daily data, allowing one to upload newly measured or recovered daily data. Generation of these maps provides a means to track pollen impacts in the context of climatic shifts, identify geographical regions with high pollen exposure, determine areas of future vulnerability, apply spatially-explicit mitigation measures and prioritize management interventions.