Alterations in mandibular morphology associated with glypican 1 and glypican 3 gene mutations.

OBJECTIVES: Glypican 1 (GPC1) and glypican 3 (GPC3) are bone co-regulators that act downstream in many of the signalling pathways associated with craniosynostosis. Morphometric data from GPC-knockout mice were analysed to determine whether elimination of GPC1 and GPC3 genes would alter mandibular morphology. SETTING AND SAMPLE POPULATION: The murine model included five male and five female mandibles in each of GPC1-knockout, GPC1/GPC3-knockout and wild-type (control) groups. Female GPC3-knockout mice had a very high rate of perinatal lethality, and therefore, only five males were included in this group. METHODS: The mandibular morphology of GPC1-knockout (n=10), GPC3-knockout (n=5), GPC1/GPC3-knockout (n=10) and wild-type (n=10) mice was compared by analysing five landmark-based linear dimensions: anterior and posterior lengths, as well as ascending, descending and posterior heights. Measurements were recorded on three-dimensional micro-CT reconstructions. RESULTS: GPC3-knockout mandibles were larger than wild-type mandibles for all dimensions (P<.05). Mandibular heights were more affected than lengths. A decreasing trend of mandibular dimensions across the mouse groups (GPC3-knockout>GPC1/GPC3-knockout>GPC1-knockout=wild-type) (P<.05) indicated that an increase in mandibular size was associated with increased GPC3 expression, but not GPC1. CONCLUSIONS: Alterations in GPC3 expression are likely to mediate changes to mandibular size in craniosynostosis. These findings have potential future applications in the prevention and treatment of craniosynostosis and associated craniofacial dysmorphology.

The human medial pterygoid muscle: Attachments and distribution of muscle spindles.

Published descriptions about the sites of origin of the human medial pterygoid muscle vary and there are few reports on the distribution and density of muscle spindles in this muscle. We aimed to: (1) determine the extent of anatomical variability in the origins and insertions of the superficial and deep heads of the human medial pterygoid muscle and (2) determine the extent of variation in the distribution of spindles in the two heads of the muscle. Thirty-nine human cadaver hemi-heads were dissected and the attachments of the medial pterygoid muscle examined. The whole muscle was removed, weighed, cut into segments and embedded in wax for light microscopy. Sections were stained with Weigert-Van Gieson stain and scanned into digital images. Spindles were manually counted. In seven specimens, the deep head of the muscle arose from the medial surface of the lateral pterygoid plate and the pterygoid fossa. In 28 specimens, the origin extended onto the lateral surface of the medial pterygoid plate. There were abundant muscle spindles in the middle of the muscle, slightly fewer 1 cm toward the insertion, significantly fewer 1 cm toward the origin, and few or no spindles near the origins of the superficial and deep heads or near their insertion. In conclusion, firstly, this study shows that in 72% of the specimens examined, the origin of the medial pterygoid is wider than conventionally described in anatomical textbooks. Secondly, the segmental distribution of muscle spindles is described for the first time. Clin. Anat. 30:1064-1071, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Features of an effective operative dentistry learning environment: students' perceptions and relationship with performance.

OBJECTIVE: Students' perceptions of their learning environment influence the quality of outcomes they achieve. Learning dental operative techniques in a simulated clinic environment is characterised by reciprocal interactions between skills training, staff- and student-related factors. However, few studies have examined how students perceive their operative learning environments and whether there is a relationship between their perceptions and subsequent performance. Therefore, this study aimed to clarify which learning activities and interactions students perceived as supporting their operative skills learning and to examine relationships with their outcomes. METHODS: Longitudinal data about examples of operative laboratory sessions that were perceived as effective or ineffective for learning were collected twice a semester, using written critical incidents and interviews. Emergent themes from these data were identified using thematic analysis. Associations between perceptions of learning effectiveness and performance were analysed using chi-square tests. RESULTS: Students indicated that an effective learning environment involved interactions with tutors and peers. This included tutors arranging group discussions to clarify processes and outcomes, providing demonstrations and constructive feedback. Feedback focused on mistakes, and not improvement, was reported as being ineffective for learning. However, there was no significant association between students' perceptions of the effectiveness of their learning experiences and subsequent performance. CONCLUSIONS: It was clear that learning in an operative technique setting involved various factors related not only to social interactions and observational aspects of learning but also to cognitive, motivational and affective processes. Consistent with studies that have demonstrated complex interactions between students, their learning environment and outcomes, other factors need investigation.

Determining the direction of tooth grinding: an in vitro study.

The analysis of microwear patterns, including scratch types and widths, has enabled reconstruction of the dietary habits and lifestyles of prehistoric and modern humans. The aim of this in vitro study was to determine whether an assessment of microwear features of experimental scratches placed on enamel, perpendicularly to the direction of grinding, could predict the grinding direction. Experimental scratches were placed using a scalpel blade on standardised wear facets that had been prepared by wearing opposing enamel surfaces in an electromechanical tooth wear machine. These control 'baseline' facets (with unworn experimental scratches) were subjected to 50 wear cycles, so that differential microwear could be observed on the leading and trailing edges of the 'final' facets. In Group 1 (n=28), the 'footprint' microwear patterns corresponding to the known grinding direction of specimens in the tooth wear machine were identified. Then, they were used to predict the direction of tooth grinding blindly in the same sample after a 2-week intermission period. To avoid overfitting the predictive model, its sensitivity was also cross-validated in a new sample (Group 2, n=14). A crescent-shaped characteristic observed in most experimental scratches matched the grinding direction on all occasions. The best predictor of the direction of grinding was a combined assessment of the leading edge microwear pattern and the crescent characteristic (82.1% in Group 1 and 92.9% in Group 2). In conclusion, a simple scratch test can determine the direction of tooth grinding with high reliability, although further improvement in sensitivity is desirable.

Dynamic Systems (Complexity) theory as a new conceptual model for researching PBL in dental education.

Although problem-based learning (PBL) was introduced into dental education some 20 years ago, there have been relatively few well-designed studies carried out to clarify whether, how or why it works in a dental context. This paper introduces the Dynamic Systems (Complexity) theory as a new and potentially productive theoretical framework for researching PBL in dental education. This framework emphasises the importance of emergent self-organisation, perception and brain plasticity in learning. In this paper, a brief overview of the history of PBL in dentistry is presented and then the fundamentals of a Dynamic Systems Approach (DSA) are explained, drawing on two recently published papers advocating the DSA in medical education and teacher education. We focus on three key points related to this new approach: emergent self-organisation rather than simple construction of knowledge; the notion that perception drives the learning process; and the brain as the substrate of all learning. The paper also suggests how the DSA can help us move forward, both in terms of the future application of PBL in dental education and also in relation to posing new types of research questions.

Acquiring psychomotor skills in operative dentistry: do innate ability and motivation matter?

OBJECTIVE: The acquisition of psychomotor skills is a key competence in the practice of dentistry, and innate abilities and motivation have been shown to influence motor performance. However, the explicit integration of these factors into the design of research projects about skill acquisition in dentistry has been limited. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to provide a comprehensive analysis of how dental students' abilities and motivation affected their performance in an operative task. METHODS: A longitudinal study with two cohorts of dental students was conducted in laboratory classes forming part of an operative technique course. A range of standardised psychometric tests was used to assess different abilities before completing a cavity preparation on Frasaco teeth. This was followed immediately by completion of an Intrinsic Motivation Inventory. RESULTS: Low but statistically significant correlations (P<0.05) were found between dental performance and psychomotor ability (r=0.22), and also dental performance and motivation (r=0.19). A significant difference (P<0.05) was found in the grades obtained for the cavity preparation exercise in one cohort between students with higher levels of psychomotor ability compared with those with lower levels (Tracing scores) (P<0.05). No significant differences in grades obtained for the cavity preparation exercise were found between students with higher and lower levels of motivation. CONCLUSION: Both innate psychomotor ability and motivation showed only weak positive associations with dental performance on cavity preparation exercises. Our study suggests that student-related factors only provide limited information to explain differences in performance or to be useful as specific predictors of future performance by individuals.

Tooth size and dental arch dimensions: a stereophotogrammetric study in Southeast Asian Malays.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate tooth size and dental arch dimensions in Malays using a stereophotogrammetric system. SETTING AND SAMPLE POPULATION: The sample consisted of 252 subjects with ages ranged from 13 to 30 years. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Images of dental casts were captured by stereophotogrammetry and selected variables were measured using a three-dimensional (3D) imaging system. Sex differences and changes associated with age were assessed, and interrelationships between different variables were explored within the study group. RESULTS: Men had significantly larger mesio-distal crown widths and dental arch dimensions than women (p < 0.05). None of the dental arch dimensions or mesio-distal crown widths showed a significant change because of age except the widths of the upper canine, lower first molar and central incisor. Significant correlations of tooth size with dental arch dimensions were found, particularly with arch lengths and perimeters. A principal component analysis showed interrelationships between the majority of tooth size variables with inter-canine width, arch length and perimeter distances. CONCLUSION: This study has established new reference data for tooth size and arch dimensions in Malays and demonstrated patterns of variation that are relevant to anthropologists interested in making comparisons within and between different populations and also to clinicians developing treatment plans for their patients. The study confirmed the accuracy of the 3D photogrammetric method for measuring dental casts.

Oral features in Apert syndrome: a histological investigation.

OBJECTIVES: The number of publications on the oral features in Apert syndrome is limited. The present study investigated dental tissues in Apert syndrome histologically, to determine the nature and extent of anomalies, to provide some insight into the nature of the condition, and to explain how observed anomalies may affect the dental management of individuals with Apert syndrome. SETTING AND SAMPLE POPULATION: Extracted primary and secondary teeth were collected from patients with Apert who had attended the Australian Craniofacial Unit, Adelaide, South Australia. The total study sample comprised 13 individuals, aged from 14 to 21 , with nine men and four women. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A total of 40 teeth were available for histological examination (the number belonging to each individual varied from 2 to 5 per patient). The teeth were sectioned longitudinally, and one-half of each tooth underwent decalcification. Sections were stained with H&E for routine histological examination. Ground sections were prepared from undecalcified tooth halves. RESULTS: Histological assessment of the dental hard tissues revealed an intact enamel and dentinal structure but some irregularities were noted in the region of the dentino-enamel junction (DEJ), which could affect caries progression and also make dental management more difficult. CONCLUSION: This study identified histological anomalies of the DEJ of Apert syndrome teeth. An improved appreciation of the nature and extent of dental anomalies in Apert syndrome should assist clinicians when undertaking management of affected individuals.

Abfraction: separating fact from fiction.

Non-carious cervical lesions involve loss of hard tissue and, in some instances, restorative material at the cervical third of the crown and subjacent root surface, through processes unrelated to caries. These non-carious processes may include abrasion, corrosion and possibly abfraction, acting alone or in combination. Abfraction is thought to take place when excessive cyclic, non-axial tooth loading leads to cusp flexure and stress concentration in the vulnerable cervical region of teeth. Such stress is then believed to directly or indirectly contribute to the loss of cervical tooth substance. This article critically reviews the literature for and against the concept of abfraction. Although there is theoretical evidence in support of abfraction, predominantly from finite element analysis studies, caution is advised when interpreting results of these studies because of their limitations. In fact, there is only a small amount of experimental evidence for abfraction. Clinical studies have shown associations between abfraction lesions, bruxism and occlusal factors, such as premature contacts and wear facets, but these investigations do not confirm causal relationships. Importantly, abfraction lesions have not been reported in pre-contemporary populations. It is important that oral health professionals understand that abfraction is still a theoretical concept, as it is not backed up by appropriate clinical evidence. It is recommended that destructive, irreversible treatments aimed at treating so-called abfraction lesions, such as occlusal adjustment, be avoided.

The effect of casein phosphopeptide-amorphous calcium phosphate on erosive dentine wear.

BACKGROUND: Erosive tooth wear is a growing concern in clinical dentistry. Our aims were to assess the effect of Tooth Mousse (TM) in managing erosive dentine wear in vitro. METHODS: Opposing enamel and dentine specimens from 36 third molar teeth were worn under a load of 100 N for 75 000 cycles in electromechanical tooth wear machines. In experiment 1, TM was applied continuously at the wear interface and the mean dentine wear rate was compared with those of specimens subjected to continuous application of hydrochloric acid (HCl, pH 3.0) and deionized water (DW, pH 6.1) as lubricants. In experiment 2, specimens were subjected to TM application every 1600 cycles at both pH 3.0 and 6.1, and the mean dentine wear rates were compared with those of specimens worn with continuous application of HCl and DW lubricants. RESULTS: Dentine wear was reduced significantly with continuous application of TM compared with HCl and DW lubricants. Specimens prepared with continuous TM application displayed smooth wear facets, whereas more pronounced microwear details were observed with HCl and DW lubricants. CONCLUSIONS: Both remineralization and lubrication seem to contribute to reduction in dentine wear associated with TM application, although lubrication appears to have a more pronounced effect.

A qualitative assessment of non-carious cervical lesions in extracted human teeth.

BACKGROUND: Opinions vary about the causes of non-carious cervical lesions (NCCLs). They have been attributed to toothbrush abrasion, acid corrosion (commonly termed dental erosion), and abfraction. The purpose of this study was to examine the microwear details of NCCLs in a collection of extracted human teeth using scanning election microscopy (SEM). METHODS: Negative replicas of large NCCLs in 24 extracted human teeth were obtained in polyvinylsiloxane impression material (Light Body Imprint II, 3M ESPE) and viewed under SEM. RESULTS: All NCCLs extended from the cemento-enamel junction to the root surface and they displayed a variety of wedge-shaped appearances. There was evidence of both abrasion and corrosion in 18 of the 24 teeth (75.0 per cent), abrasion only in one tooth (4.2 per cent) and corrosion only in five teeth (20.8 per cent). Horizontal furrows with smooth edges and minor scratch marks, characteristic of abrasion and corrosion, were noted in 13 teeth (54.2 per cent). CONCLUSIONS: Based on microscopic assessment of a sample of extracted teeth, it appears that abrasion and corrosion are common associated aetiological factors in the formation of NCCLs.

Strong genetic control of emergence of human primary incisors.

Our understanding of tooth eruption in humans remains incomplete. We hypothesized that genetic factors contribute significantly to phenotypic variation in the emergence of primary incisors. We applied model-fitting to data from Australian twins to quantify contributions of genetic and environmental factors to variation in timing of the emergence of human primary incisors. There were no significant differences in incisor emergence times between zygosity groups or sexes. Emergence times of maxillary central incisors and mandibular lateral incisors were less variable than those of maxillary lateral incisors and mandibular central incisors. Maxillary lateral incisors displayed significant directional asymmetry, the left side emerging earlier than the right. Variation in timing of the emergence of the primary incisors was under strong genetic control, with a small but significant contribution from the external environment. Estimates of narrow-sense heritability ranged from 82 to 94% in males and 71 to 96% in females.

Surface-Sensitive Microwear Texture Analysis of Attrition and Erosion.

Scale-sensitive fractal analysis of high-resolution 3-dimensional surface reconstructions of wear patterns has advanced our knowledge in evolutionary biology, and has opened up opportunities for translatory applications in clinical practice. To elucidate the microwear characteristics of attrition and erosion in worn natural teeth, we scanned 50 extracted human teeth using a confocal profiler at a high optical resolution (X-Y, 0.17 µm; Z < 3 nm). Our hypothesis was that microwear complexity would be greater in erosion and that anisotropy would be greater in attrition. The teeth were divided into 4 groups, including 2 wear types (attrition and erosion) and 2 locations (anterior and posterior teeth; n = 12 for each anterior group, n = 13 for each posterior group) for 2 tissue types (enamel and dentine). The raw 3-dimensional data cloud was subjected to a newly developed rigorous standardization technique to reduce interscanner variability as well as to filter anomalous scanning data. Linear mixed effects (regression) analyses conducted separately for the dependent variables, complexity and anisotropy, showed the following effects of the independent variables: significant interactions between wear type and tissue type ( P = 0.0157 and P = 0.0003, respectively) and significant effects of location ( P < 0.0001 and P = 0.0035, respectively). There were significant associations between complexity and anisotropy when the dependent variable was either complexity ( P = 0.0003) or anisotropy ( P = 0.0014). Our findings of greater complexity in erosion and greater anisotropy in attrition confirm our hypothesis. The greatest geometric means were noted in dentine erosion for complexity and dentine attrition for anisotropy. Dentine also exhibited microwear characteristics that were more consistent with wear types than enamel. Overall, our findings could complement macrowear assessment in dental clinical practice and research and could assist in the early detection and management of pathologic tooth wear.

Prevalence and side preference for tooth grinding in twins.

BACKGROUND: Estimates of the prevalence of tooth grinding in children range considerably, reflecting different methods of recording. The main aims of this study were to determine the prevalence of tooth grinding in monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twin pairs by assessing wear faceting on the primary canines, and to compare the faceting on the right and left to determine whether children have a side preference for grinding. METHODS: The sample consisted of 116 MZ twin pairs and 124 dizygous DZ twin pairs, all participants in an ongoing study of dento-facial development at the dental schools in Adelaide and Melbourne. Evidence of wear faceting on primary maxillary and mandibular canine tips was recorded from dental casts, and the side with the larger wear facet recorded. Types of occlusal relationship, handedness, zygosity and gender were also recorded, and associations between variables analysed statistically. RESULTS: Canine tip wear facets were found in 100 per cent of the sample, and grinding was lateralized in 59 per cent of children. MZ twin pairs showed a higher discordance for grinding side preference than DZ twin pairs (33.8 per cent compared with 16.8 per cent), providing evidence of a mirror-imaging effect for grinding side preference. There was no strong evidence that individuals had the same preference for grinding side and handedness, although right-handers (RH) showed a preference for a grinding side more often than non-right-handers (NRH) (63.6 per cent compared with 51.2 per cent), consistent with previous findings that RHs display more cerebral lateralization than NRHs. CONCLUSIONS: Tooth grinding appears to be a universal phenomenon in children and is commonly expressed more on one side than the other. The significantly higher discordance for grinding side preference in MZ twin pairs compared with DZ twin pairs may reflect a mirror-imaging effect in the former. However, at present we have no evidence to suggest that handedness and preferred tooth grinding side are associated.

Effects of non-carious cervical lesion size, occlusal loading and restoration on biomechanical behaviour of premolar teeth.

BACKGROUND: Information on fracture biomechanics has implications in materials research and clinical practice. The aim of this study was to analyse the influence of non-carious cervical lesion (NCCL) size, restorative status and direction of occlusal loading on the biomechanical behaviour of mandibular premolars, using finite element analysis (FEA), strain gauge tests and fracture resistance tests. METHODS: Ten buccal cusps were loaded on the outer and inner slopes to calculate the strain generated cervically. Data were collected for healthy teeth at baseline and progressively at three lesion depths (0.5 mm, 1.0 mm and 1.5 mm), followed by restoration with resin composite. The magnitude and distribution of von Mises stress and maximum principal stress were simulated at all stages using FEA, and fracture strength was also determined (n = 7 per group). RESULTS: There were significant effects of the lesion size and loading directions on stress, strain and fracture resistance (p < 0.05). Fracture resistance values decreased with increase in lesion size, but returned to baseline with restorations. CONCLUSIONS: Combined assessment of computer-based and experimental techniques provide an holistic approach to characterize the biomechanical behaviour of teeth with both unrestored and restored NCCLs.

In vitro models of the blood-brain barrier to study bacterial meningitis.

In vitro models of the blood-brain barrier involving culturing cerebral microvascular endothelial cells may provide information critical to understanding diseases of the central nervous system, such as bacterial meningitis, that would be difficult to obtain from clinical studies or from in vivo models. These models may also identify targets for therapeutic intervention.

Linear enamel hypoplasia and historical change in a central Australian community.

BACKGROUND: The current study extends the use of linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) to examine the historical changes in living conditions encountered by Aboriginal people at Yuendumu who were born between 1890 and 1960. LEH provides health information beyond written records and gives information beyond written records and gives insight into the relationship between individual health and living conditions during initial and ongoing contact with Europeans. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The dental casts of 446 people, collected as part of the University of Adelaide longitudinal study of growth and development, were recorded for the presence of hypoplastic defects. Defects were recorded according to the Development Defects of the Enamel (DDE) standards and assigned to developmental units based on their crown position. RESULTS: The frequency of LEH on the permanent dentitions increased five-fold from the 1890-1929 birth cohort to the 1955-1960 cohort. LEH also affected earlier developing enamel units. Deciduous defects did not show a strong temporal trend but overall prevalence was comparable to other disadvantaged groups. CONCLUSION: The changes in permanent LEH frequency and age distribution correspond to altered living conditions with the worst hypoplasia recorded after settlement of Aboriginal people at Yuendumu. Prior to that period LEH was comparable to precontact Australian populations indicating that resettlement had a dramatic impact on childhood morbidity.

Epigenetic influences may explain dental differences in monozygotic twin pairs.

BACKGROUND: Comparisons between monozygotic (MZ) co-twins have tended to focus on the similarities between their dentitions rather than differences. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of discordant expression for simple hypodontia and supernumerary teeth in MZ twin pairs and to explain how phenotypic differences might occur despite their similar genotypes. METHODS: Records of 278 pairs of MZ twins, including dental casts and radiographs, were examined and the prevalences of discordant expression for missing upper lateral incisors (ULI) or second premolars (PM2), and of mesiodentes, were determined. Zygosities were confirmed by comparisons of blood markers and DNA. RESULTS: There was evidence of at least one missing ULI or PM2 in 24 of the 278 MZ pairs (8.6 per cent), with 21 of these 24 pairs (87.5 per cent) showing discordant expression. Nine of the 278 MZ pairs (3.2 per cent) displayed evidence of mesiodentes, with eight of these nine pairs (88.9 per cent) being discordant. CONCLUSION: Our findings show that differences in the expression of missing or extra teeth occur often between MZ co-twins whose genetic make-up predisposes them to simple hypodontia or mesiodentes. We postulate that minor variations in epigenetic events during odontogenesis may account for these distinct differences.

Discal attachments of the human temporomandibular joint.

BACKGROUND: Despite its clinical significance, the anatomy of the human temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and its relationship to the lateral pterygoid muscle remains poorly described and often misrepresented in standard texts. The aim of this study was to describe how the anterior and posterior attachments of the TMJ disc vary between lateral, central and medial regions of the joint. METHODS: Ten left TMJs were removed en bloc from cadavers and serial sections were made at 3-4mm intervals. Observations were made to ascertain the anterior and posterior attachments of the disc and the joint structures were traced from standardized photographs. RESULTS: Laterally, the capsule and lateral discal ligament merged prior to their attachment at the condylar pole. Medially, muscle fibres, capsule and the disc converged on the medial pole of the condyle. There was no evidence that fibres of the upper head of the lateral pterygoid muscle inserted directly into the disc. The upper head inserted into the condyle either directly at the pterygoid fovea or via a central tendon or indirectly via the capsule. Posteriorly, the superior part of the posterior attachment of the disc attached to the cartilaginous meatus and tympanic part of the temporal bone. The inferior part of the posterior attachment of the disc attached to the posterior surface of the condyle. In four joints, this attachment was folded beneath the posterior band of the disc, creating a wedge-shaped flap that ran medio-laterally. CONCLUSION: This study is in broad agreement with other anatomical TMJ studies but there are two main points of difference. Firstly, a true muscle insertion of the superior head of the lateral pterygoid muscle to the disc was not observed. Secondly, a wedge-shaped flap of retrodiscal tissue was identified between the condyle and the disc.

Nanoscratch testing for the assessment of enamel demineralization under conditions simulating wine erosion.

BACKGROUND: Erosive tooth wear and dentinal hypersensitivity are common problems affecting professional wine tasters. By using nanoscratch testing, the aim of this in vitro study was to assess enamel softening under conditions simulating 10 one-minute episodes of wine erosion. METHODS: Ten enamel specimens were bathed in artificial saliva for 2 hours before being eroded for 10 episodes, with each episode comprising one minute of wine erosion followed by one minute of remineralization in artificial saliva. Nanoscratches were placed with a spherical tip (20 µm radius) in a nanoindenter under a load of 100 mN at baseline (stage 1), after a one-erosion episode (stage 2) and after 10-erosion episodes (stage 3). RESULTS: There were significant effects of erosion stages on both scratch depth (p<0.001) and surface roughness (p<0.001). Post hoc tests showed significant differences in both scratch depths and surface roughness between stages 1 and 3 (p<0.001), and between stages 2 and 3 (p<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Enamel softening occurs at an early stage of wine tasting, emphasizing the need to implement early preventive strategies in professional wine tasters. Further research elucidating the fundamental mechanisms involved in early stages of erosion has the potential to lead to development of more effective preventive strategies.