Annexin A11 mutations are associated with nuclear envelope dysfunction in vivo and in human tissue.

Annexin A11 mutations are a rare cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), wherein replicated protein variants P36R, G38R, D40G and D40Y are located in a small-alpha helix within the long, disordered N-terminus. To elucidate disease mechanisms, we characterised the phenotypes induced by a genetic loss of function (LoF) and by misexpression of G38R and D40G in vivo. Loss of Annexin A11 results in a low-penetrant behavioural phenotype and aberrant axonal morphology in zebrafish homozygous knockout larvae, which is rescued by human WT Annexin A11. Both Annexin A11 knockout/down and ALS variants trigger nuclear dysfunction characterised by Lamin B2 mis-localisation. The Lamin B2 signature also presented in anterior horn, spinal cord neurons from post-mortem ALS+/-FTD patient tissue possessing G38R and D40G protein variants. These findings suggest mutant Annexin A11 acts as a dominant negative, revealing a potential early nucleopathy highlighting nuclear envelope abnormalities preceding behavioural abnormality in animal models.

Role of the repeat expansion size in predicting age of onset and severity in RFC1 disease.

RFC1 disease, caused by biallelic repeat expansion in RFC1, is clinically heterogeneous in terms of age of onset, disease progression and phenotype. We investigated the role of the repeat size in influencing clinical variables in RFC1 disease. We also assessed the presence and role of meiotic and somatic instability of the repeat. In this study, we identified 553 patients carrying biallelic RFC1 expansions and measured the repeat expansion size in 392 cases. Pearson's coefficient was calculated to assess the correlation between the repeat size and age at disease onset. A Cox model with robust cluster standard errors was adopted to describe the effect of repeat size on age at disease onset, on age at onset of each individual symptoms, and on disease progression. A quasi-Poisson regression model was used to analyse the relationship between phenotype and repeat size. We performed multivariate linear regression to assess the association of the repeat size with the degree of cerebellar atrophy. Meiotic stability was assessed by Southern blotting on first-degree relatives of 27 probands. Finally, somatic instability was investigated by optical genome mapping on cerebellar and frontal cortex and unaffected peripheral tissue from four post-mortem cases. A larger repeat size of both smaller and larger allele was associated with an earlier age at neurological onset [smaller allele hazard ratio (HR) = 2.06, P < 0.001; larger allele HR = 1.53, P < 0.001] and with a higher hazard of developing disabling symptoms, such as dysarthria or dysphagia (smaller allele HR = 3.40, P < 0.001; larger allele HR = 1.71, P = 0.002) or loss of independent walking (smaller allele HR = 2.78, P < 0.001; larger allele HR = 1.60; P < 0.001) earlier in disease course. Patients with more complex phenotypes carried larger expansions [smaller allele: complex neuropathy rate ratio (RR) = 1.30, P = 0.003; cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy and vestibular areflexia syndrome (CANVAS) RR = 1.34, P < 0.001; larger allele: complex neuropathy RR = 1.33, P = 0.008; CANVAS RR = 1.31, P = 0.009]. Furthermore, larger repeat expansions in the smaller allele were associated with more pronounced cerebellar vermis atrophy (lobules I-V ß = -1.06, P < 0.001; lobules VI-VII ß = -0.34, P = 0.005). The repeat did not show significant instability during vertical transmission and across different tissues and brain regions. RFC1 repeat size, particularly of the smaller allele, is one of the determinants of variability in RFC1 disease and represents a key prognostic factor to predict disease onset, phenotype and severity. Assessing the repeat size is warranted as part of the diagnostic test for RFC1 expansion.

Impact of Magnetic Resonance Imaging Markers on the Diagnostic Performance of the International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society Multiple System Atrophy Criteria.

BACKGROUND: Multiple system atrophy is a neurodegenerative disease with α-synuclein aggregation in glial cytoplasmic inclusions, leading to dysautonomia, parkinsonism, and cerebellar ataxia. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to validate the accuracy of the International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society Multiple System Atrophy clinical diagnostic criteria, particularly considering the impact of the newly introduced brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) markers. METHODS: Diagnostic accuracy of the clinical diagnostic criteria for multiple system atrophy was estimated retrospectively in autopsy-confirmed patients with multiple system atrophy, Parkinson's disease, progressive supranuclear palsy, and corticobasal degeneration. RESULTS: We identified a total of 240 patients. Sensitivity of the clinically probable criteria was moderate at symptom onset but improved with disease duration (year 1: 9%, year 3: 39%, final ante mortem record: 77%), whereas their specificity remained consistently high (99%-100% throughout). Sensitivity of the clinically established criteria was low during the first 3 years (1%-9%), with mild improvement at the final ante mortem record (22%), whereas specificity remained high (99%-100% throughout). When MRI features were excluded from the clinically established criteria, their sensitivity increased considerably (year 1: 3%, year 3: 22%, final ante mortem record: 48%), and their specificity was not compromised (99%-100% throughout). CONCLUSIONS: The International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society multiple system atrophy diagnostic criteria showed consistently high specificity and low to moderate sensitivity throughout the disease course. The MRI markers for the clinically established criteria reduced their sensitivity without improving specificity. Combining clinically probable and clinically established criteria, but disregarding MRI features, yielded the best sensitivity with excellent specificity and may be most appropriate to select patients for therapeutic trials. © 2024 The Author(s). Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Tau-mediated synaptic dysfunction is coupled with HCN channelopathy.

INTRODUCTION: In tauopathies, altered tau processing correlates with impairments in synaptic density and function. Changes in hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels contribute to disease-associated abnormalities in multiple neurodegenerative diseases. METHODS: To investigate the link between tau and HCN channels, we performed histological, biochemical, ultrastructural, and functional analyses of hippocampal tissues from Alzheimer's disease (AD), age-matched controls, Tau35 mice, and/or Tau35 primary hippocampal neurons. RESULTS: Expression of specific HCN channels is elevated in post mortem AD hippocampus. Tau35 mice develop progressive abnormalities including increased phosphorylated tau, enhanced HCN channel expression, decreased dendritic branching, reduced synapse density, and vesicle clustering defects. Tau35 primary neurons show increased HCN channel expression enhanced hyperpolarization-induced membrane voltage "sag" and changes in the frequency and kinetics of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents. DISCUSSION: Our findings are consistent with a model in which pathological changes in tauopathies impact HCN channels to drive network-wide structural and functional synaptic deficits. HIGHLIGHTS: Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are functionally linked to the development of tauopathy. Expression of specific HCN channels is elevated in the hippocampus in Alzheimer's disease and the Tau35 mouse model of tauopathy. Increased expression of HCN channels in Tau35 mice is accompanied by hyperpolarization-induced membrane voltage "sag" demonstrating a detrimental effect of tau abnormalities on HCN channel function. Tau35 expression alters synaptic organization, causing a loosened vesicle clustering phenotype in Tau35 mice.

Cytoplasmic TDP-43 is involved in cell fate during stress recovery.

Transactive response DNA binding protein 43 (TDP-43) is an RNA processing protein central to the pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Nuclear TDP-43 mislocalizes in patients to the cytoplasm, where it forms ubiquitin-positive inclusions in affected neurons and glia. Physiologically, cytoplasmic TDP-43 is associated with stress granules (SGs). Here, we explored TDP-43 cytoplasmic accumulation and stress granule formation following osmotic and oxidative stress. We show that sorbitol drives TDP-43 redistribution to the cytoplasm, while arsenite induces the recruitment of cytoplasmic TDP-43 to TIA-1 positive SGs. We demonstrate that inducing acute oxidative stress after TDP-43 cytoplasmic relocalization by osmotic shock induces poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage, which triggers cellular toxicity. Recruitment of cytoplasmic TDP-43 to polyribosomes occurs in an SH-SY5Y cellular stress model and is observed in FTD brain lysate. Moreover, the processing body (P-body) marker DCP1a is detected in TDP-43 granules during recovery from stress. Overall, this study supports a central role for cytoplasmic TDP-43 in controlling protein translation in stressed cells.

Long-Duration Progressive Supranuclear Palsy: Clinical Course and Pathological Underpinnings.

OBJECTIVES: To identify the clinical characteristics of the subgroup of benign progressive supranuclear palsy with particularly long disease duration; to define neuropathological determinants underlying variability in disease duration in progressive supranuclear palsy. METHODS: Clinical and pathological features were compared among 186 autopsy-confirmed cases with progressive supranuclear palsy with ≥10 years and shorter survival times. RESULTS: The 45 cases (24.2%) had a disease duration of ≥10 years. The absence of ocular motor abnormalities within the first 3 years from disease onset was the only significant independent clinical predictor of longer survival. Histopathologically, the neurodegeneration parameters in each survival group were paralleled anatomically by the distribution of neuronal cytoplasmic inclusions, whereas the tufted astrocytes displayed anatomically an opposite severity pattern. Most interestingly, we found significantly less coiled bodies in those who survive longer, in contrast to patients with less favorable course. INTERPRETATION: A considerable proportion of patients had a more "benign" disease course with ≥10 years survival. They had a distinct pattern and evolution of core symptoms compared to patients with short survival. The inverted anatomical patterns of astrocytic tau distribution suggest distinct implications of these cell types in trans-cellular propagation. The tempo of disease progression appeared to be determined mostly by oligodendroglial tau, where the high degree of oligodendroglial tau pathology might affect neuronal integrity and function on top of neuronal tau pathology. The relative contribution of glial tau should be further explored in cellular and animal models. ANN NEUROL 2022;92:637-649.

P2X7R influences tau aggregate burden in human tauopathies and shows distinct signalling in microglia and astrocytes.

The purinoceptor P2X7R is a promising therapeutic target for tauopathies, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Pharmacological inhibition or genetic knockdown of P2X7R ameliorates cognitive deficits and reduces pathological tau burden in mice that model aspects of tauopathy, including mice expressing mutant human frontotemporal dementia (FTD)-causing forms of tau. However, disagreements remain over which glial cell types express P2X7R and therefore the mechanism of action is unresolved. Here, we show that P2X7R protein levels increase in human AD post-mortem brain, in agreement with an upregulation of P2RX7 mRNA observed in transcriptome profiles from the AMP-AD consortium. P2X7R protein increases mirror advancing Braak stage and coincide with synapse loss. Using RNAScope we detect P2RX7 mRNA in microglia and astrocytes in human AD brain, including in the vicinity of senile plaques. In cultured microglia, P2X7R activation modulates the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway by promoting the formation of active complexes and release of IL-1ß. In astrocytes, P2X7R activates NFκB signalling and increases production of the cytokines CCL2, CXCL1 and IL-6 together with the acute phase protein Lcn2. To further explore the role of P2X7R in a disease-relevant context, we expressed wild-type or FTD-causing mutant forms of tau in mouse organotypic brain slice cultures. Inhibition of P2X7R reduces insoluble tau levels without altering soluble tau phosphorylation or synaptic localisation, suggesting a non-cell autonomous role of glial P2X7R on pathological tau aggregation. These findings support further investigations into the cell-type specific effects of P2X7R-targeting therapies in tauopathies.

Multisystem screening reveals SARS-CoV-2 in neurons of the myenteric plexus and in megakaryocytes.

SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19, typically manifests as a respiratory illness, although extrapulmonary involvement, such as in the gastrointestinal tract and nervous system, as well as frequent thrombotic events, are increasingly recognised. How this maps onto SARS-CoV-2 organ tropism at the histological level, however, remains unclear. Here, we perform a comprehensive validation of a monoclonal antibody against the SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein (NP) followed by systematic multisystem organ immunohistochemistry analysis of the viral cellular tropism in tissue from 36 patients, 16 postmortem cases and 16 biopsies with polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 status from the peaks of the pandemic in 2020 and four pre-COVID postmortem controls. SARS-CoV-2 anti-NP staining in the postmortem cases revealed broad multiorgan involvement of the respiratory, digestive, haematopoietic, genitourinary and nervous systems, with a typical pattern of staining characterised by punctate paranuclear and apical cytoplasmic labelling. The average time from symptom onset to time of death was shorter in positively versus negatively stained postmortem cases (mean = 10.3 days versus mean = 20.3 days, p = 0.0416, with no cases showing definitive staining if the interval exceeded 15 days). One striking finding was the widespread presence of SARS-CoV-2 NP in neurons of the myenteric plexus, a site of high ACE2 expression, the entry receptor for SARS-CoV-2, and one of the earliest affected cells in Parkinson's disease. In the bone marrow, we observed viral SARS-CoV-2 NP within megakaryocytes, key cells in platelet production and thrombus formation. In 15 tracheal biopsies performed in patients requiring ventilation, there was a near complete concordance between immunohistochemistry and PCR swab results. Going forward, our findings have relevance to correlating clinical symptoms with the organ tropism of SARS-CoV-2 in contemporary cases as well as providing insights into potential long-term complications of COVID-19. © 2022 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

Altered SOD1 maturation and post-translational modification in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis spinal cord.

Aberrant self-assembly and toxicity of wild-type and mutant superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) has been widely examined in silico, in vitro and in transgenic animal models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Detailed examination of the protein in disease-affected tissues from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients, however, remains scarce. We used histological, biochemical and analytical techniques to profile alterations to SOD1 protein deposition, subcellular localization, maturation and post-translational modification in post-mortem spinal cord tissues from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis cases and controls. Tissues were dissected into ventral and dorsal spinal cord grey matter to assess the specificity of alterations within regions of motor neuron degeneration. We provide evidence of the mislocalization and accumulation of structurally disordered, immature SOD1 protein conformers in spinal cord motor neurons of SOD1-linked and non-SOD1-linked familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis cases, and sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis cases, compared with control motor neurons. These changes were collectively associated with instability and mismetallation of enzymatically active SOD1 dimers, as well as alterations to SOD1 post-translational modifications and molecular chaperones governing SOD1 maturation. Atypical changes to SOD1 protein were largely restricted to regions of neurodegeneration in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis cases, and clearly differentiated all forms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis from controls. Substantial heterogeneity in the presence of these changes was also observed between amyotrophic lateral sclerosis cases. Our data demonstrate that varying forms of SOD1 proteinopathy are a common feature of all forms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and support the presence of one or more convergent biochemical pathways leading to SOD1 proteinopathy in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Most of these alterations are specific to regions of neurodegeneration, and may therefore constitute valid targets for therapeutic development.

Axonal injury is detected by ßAPP immunohistochemistry in rapid death from head injury following road traffic collision.

The accumulation of ßAPP caused by axonal injury is an active energy-dependent process thought to require blood circulation; therefore, it is closely related to the post-injury survival time. Currently, the earliest reported time at which axonal injury can be detected in post-mortem traumatic brain injury (TBI) tissue by ßAPP (Beta Amyloid Precursor Protein) immunohistochemistry is 35 min. The aim of this study is to investigate whether ßAPP staining for axonal injury can be detected in patients who died rapidly after TBI in road traffic collision (RTC), in a period of less than 30 min.We retrospectively studied thirty-seven patients (group 1) died very rapidly at the scene; evidenced by forensic assessment of injuries short survival, four patients died after a survival period of between 31 min and 12 h (group 2) and eight patients between 2 and 31 days (group 3). The brains were comprehensively examined and sampled at the time of the autopsy, and ßAPP immunohistochemistry carried out on sections from a number of brain areas.ßAPP immunoreactivity was demonstrated in 35/37 brains in group 1, albeit with a low frequency and in a variable pattern, and with more intensity and frequency in all brains of group 2 and 7/8 brains from group 3, compared with no similar ßAPP immunoreactivity in the control group. The results suggest axonal injury can be detected in those who died rapidly after RTC in a period of less than 30 min, which can help in the diagnosis of severe TBI with short survival time.

Fatal thrombolysis-related intracerebral haemorrhage associated with amyloid-ß-related angiitis in a middle-aged patient - case report and literature review.

BACKGROUND: Amyloid-ß-related angiitis (ABRA) is a rare complication of cerebral amyloid angiopathy, characterized by amyloid-ß deposition in the leptomeningeal and cortical vessels with associated angiodestructive granulomatous inflammation. The clinical presentation is variable, including subacute cognitive decline, behavioural changes, headaches, seizures and focal neurological deficits, which may mimic other conditions. Here, we present a case with fatal thrombolysis-related haemorrhage associated with ABRA in a middle-aged patient. CASE PRESENTATION: A 55-year-old man was admitted to hospital with sudden onset left-sided cheek, arm and hand sensory loss, blurred vision, and worsening headache, with a National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) score of 3. An acute CT head scan showed no contraindications, and therefore the decision was made to give intravenous thrombolysis. Post-thrombolysis, he showed rapid deterioration with visual disturbances, headache and confusion, and a repeat CT head scan confirmed several areas of intracerebral haemorrhage. No benefit from surgical intervention was expected, and the patient died four days after the first presentation. Neuropathological examination found acute ischemic infarcts of three to five days duration in the basal ganglia, insular cortex and occipital lobe, correlating with the initial clinical symptoms. There were also extensive recent intracerebral haemorrhages most likely secondary to thrombolysis. Furthermore, the histological examination revealed severe cerebral amyloid angiopathy associated with granulomatous inflammatory reaction, consistent with ABRA. CONCLUSIONS: Presentation of ABRA in a middle-aged patient highlighted the difficulties in recognition and management of this rare condition. There is emerging evidence that patients with CAA may have increased risk of fatal intracerebral haemorrhages following thrombolysis. This may be further increased by a coexisting CAA-related inflammatory vasculopathy which is potentially treatable with steroid therapy if early diagnosis is made.

A pathologically confirmed case of combined amyotrophic lateral sclerosis with C9orf72 mutation and multiple system atrophy.

Hexanucleotide repeat expansions in C9orf72 account for a large proportion of cases of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal lobar degeneration. There have been occasional reported cases associated with this expansion but also additional extrapyramidal clinical features. However, only very rarely has there been pathological confirmation of a parkinsonian syndrome associated with a C9orf72 repeat expansion. To date, as far as we are aware, there have been no reported pathologically confirmed cases of ALS with C9orf72 mutation and multiple system atrophy (MSA). We report a case of a man who initially presented with extrapyramidal features, including cogwheel rigidity, and, therefore, was clinically considered likely to have Parkinson's disease or a parkinsonian syndrome. Subsequent examination six months later revealed additional abnormal upper and lower motor neuron signs, raising the strong possibility of ALS. He had a rapid clinical decline and died 16 months after the first presentation. It was noted that his father also had ALS, and that his mother had a parkinsonian syndrome, suggestive of progressive supranuclear palsy. The macroscopic and microscopic examination of the brain and spinal cord revealed ALS pathology with neuronal loss, especially of the anterior horns of the cord and the motor cortex. This was associated with numerous neuronal cytoplasmic inclusions immunoreactive for phosphorylated transactivation response DNA-binding protein of 43 Da (TDP43). There were additional pathological features, including p62-immunoreactive cerebellar neuronal cytoplasmic inclusions, fully in keeping with a C9orf72 repeat expansion, and this was confirmed on molecular analysis. However, there was also α-synuclein pathology in the form of oligodendroglial cytoplasmic inclusions in the basal ganglia, cerebellum, and brainstem, indicative of MSA. To our knowledge, this is the first reported case of pathologically confirmed combined ALS-C9orf72 and MSA.

Genome-wide DNA methylation profiling identifies convergent molecular signatures associated with idiopathic and syndromic autism in post-mortem human brain tissue.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) encompasses a collection of complex neuropsychiatric disorders characterized by deficits in social functioning, communication and repetitive behaviour. Building on recent studies supporting a role for developmentally moderated regulatory genomic variation in the molecular aetiology of ASD, we quantified genome-wide patterns of DNA methylation in 223 post-mortem tissues samples isolated from three brain regions [prefrontal cortex, temporal cortex and cerebellum (CB)] dissected from 43 ASD patients and 38 non-psychiatric control donors. We identified widespread differences in DNA methylation associated with idiopathic ASD (iASD), with consistent signals in both cortical regions that were distinct to those observed in the CB. Individuals carrying a duplication on chromosome 15q (dup15q), representing a genetically defined subtype of ASD, were characterized by striking differences in DNA methylationacross a discrete domain spanning an imprinted gene cluster within the duplicated region. In addition to the dramatic cis-effects on DNA methylation observed in dup15q carriers, we identified convergent methylomic signatures associated with both iASD and dup15q, reflecting the findings from previous studies of gene expression and H3K27ac. Cortical co-methylation network analysis identified a number of co-methylated modules significantly associated with ASD that are enriched for genomic regions annotated to genes involved in the immune system, synaptic signalling and neuronal regulation. Our study represents the first systematic analysis of DNA methylation associated with ASD across multiple brain regions, providing novel evidence for convergent molecular signatures associated with both idiopathic and syndromic autism.

Astrocytic C-X-C motif chemokine ligand-1 mediates ß-amyloid-induced synaptotoxicity.

BACKGROUND: Pathological interactions between ß-amyloid (Aß) and tau drive synapse loss and cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Reactive astrocytes, displaying altered functions, are also a prominent feature of AD brain. This large and heterogeneous population of cells are increasingly recognised as contributing to early phases of disease. However, the contribution of astrocytes to Aß-induced synaptotoxicity in AD is not well understood. METHODS: We stimulated mouse and human astrocytes with conditioned medium containing concentrations and species of human Aß that mimic those in human AD brain. Medium from stimulated astrocytes was collected and immunodepleted of Aß before being added to naïve rodent or human neuron cultures. A cytokine, identified in unbiased screens of stimulated astrocyte media and in postmortem human AD brain lysates was also applied to neurons, including those pre-treated with a chemokine receptor antagonist. Tau mislocalisation, synaptic markers and dendritic spine numbers were measured in cultured neurons and organotypic brain slice cultures. RESULTS: We found that conditioned medium from stimulated astrocytes induces exaggerated synaptotoxicity that is recapitulated following spiking of neuron culture medium with recombinant C-X-C motif chemokine ligand-1 (CXCL1), a chemokine upregulated in AD brain. Antagonism of neuronal C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 2 (CXCR2) prevented synaptotoxicity in response to CXCL1 and Aß-stimulated astrocyte secretions. CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate that astrocytes exacerbate the synaptotoxic effects of Aß via interactions of astrocytic CXCL1 and neuronal CXCR2 receptors, highlighting this chemokine-receptor pair as a novel target for therapeutic intervention in AD.

Plasma p-tau231: a new biomarker for incipient Alzheimer's disease pathology.

The quantification of phosphorylated tau in biofluids, either cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or plasma, has shown great promise in detecting Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathophysiology. Tau phosphorylated at threonine 231 (p-tau231) is one such biomarker in CSF but its usefulness as a blood biomarker is currently unknown. Here, we developed an ultrasensitive Single molecule array (Simoa) for the quantification of plasma p-tau231 which was validated in four independent cohorts (n = 588) in different settings, including the full AD continuum and non-AD neurodegenerative disorders. Plasma p-tau231 was able to identify patients with AD and differentiate them from amyloid-ß negative cognitively unimpaired (CU) older adults with high accuracy (AUC = 0.92-0.94). Plasma p-tau231 also distinguished AD patients from patients with non-AD neurodegenerative disorders (AUC = 0.93), as well as from amyloid-ß negative MCI patients (AUC = 0.89). In a neuropathology cohort, plasma p-tau231 in samples taken on avergae 4.2 years prior to post-mortem very accurately identified AD neuropathology in comparison to non-AD neurodegenerative disorders (AUC = 0.99), this is despite all patients being given an AD dementia diagnosis during life. Plasma p-tau231 was highly correlated with CSF p-tau231, tau pathology as assessed by [18F]MK-6240 positron emission tomography (PET), and brain amyloidosis by [18F]AZD469 PET. Remarkably, the inflection point of plasma p-tau231, increasing as a function of continuous [18F]AZD469 amyloid-ß PET standardized uptake value ratio, was shown to be earlier than standard thresholds of amyloid-ß PET positivity and the increase of plasma p-tau181. Furthermore, plasma p-tau231 was significantly increased in amyloid-ß PET quartiles 2-4, whereas CSF p-tau217 and plasma p-tau181 increased only at quartiles 3-4 and 4, respectively. Finally, plasma p-tau231 differentiated individuals across the entire Braak stage spectrum, including Braak staging from Braak 0 through Braak I-II, which was not observed for plasma p-tau181. To conclude, this novel plasma p-tau231 assay identifies the clinical stages of AD and neuropathology equally well as plasma p-tau181, but increases earlier, already with subtle amyloid-ß deposition, prior to the threshold for amyloid-ß PET positivity has been attained, and also in response to early brain tau deposition. Thus, plasma p-tau231 is a promising novel biomarker of emerging AD pathology with the potential to facilitate clinical trials to identify vulnerable populations below PET threshold of amyloid-ß positivity or apparent entorhinal tau deposition.

Spinal cord injury as an indicator of abuse in forensic assessment of abusive head trauma (AHT).

Abusive head trauma (AHT) in children is notoriously one of the most challenging diagnoses for the forensic pathologist. The pathological "triad", a combination of intracranial subdural haematoma, cerebral oedema with hypoxic-ischaemic changes and retinal haemorrhages, is frequently argued to be insufficient to support a corroborated verdict of abuse. Data from all available English-language scientific literature involving radiological and neuropathological spinal cord examination is reviewed here in order to assess the contribution of spinal cord changes in differentiating abusive from accidental head trauma. In agreement with the statistically proven association between spinal subdural haemorrhage (SDH) and abuse (Choudhary et al. in Radiology 262:216-223, 2012), spinal blood collection proved to be the most indicative finding related to abusive aetiology. The incidence of spinal blood collection is as much as 44-48% when all the spinal cord levels are analysed as opposed to just 0-18% when the assessment is performed at cervical level only, in agreement with the evidence of the most frequent spinal SDH location at thoracolumbar rather than cervical level. In this review, the source of spinal cord blood collection and how the age of the child relates to the position of spinal cord lesions is also discussed. We concluded that the ante mortem MRI examination and post mortem examination of whole-length spinal cord is of fundamental interest for the assessment of abuse in the forensic setting.

Disruption of endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria tethering proteins in post-mortem Alzheimer's disease brain.

Signaling between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria regulates a number of key neuronal functions, many of which are perturbed in Alzheimer's disease. Moreover, damage to ER-mitochondria signaling is seen in cell and transgenic models of Alzheimer's disease. However, as yet there is little evidence that ER-mitochondria signaling is altered in human Alzheimer's disease brains. ER-mitochondria signaling is mediated by interactions between the integral ER protein VAPB and the outer mitochondrial membrane protein PTPIP51 which act to recruit and "tether" regions of ER to the mitochondrial surface. The VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers are now known to regulate a number of ER-mitochondria signaling functions including delivery of Ca2+from ER stores to mitochondria, mitochondrial ATP production, autophagy and synaptic activity. Here we investigate the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers in post-mortem control and Alzheimer's disease brains. Quantification of ER-mitochondria signaling proteins by immunoblotting revealed loss of VAPB and PTPIP51 in cortex but not cerebellum at end-stage Alzheimer's disease. Proximity ligation assays were used to quantify the VAPB-PTPIP51 interaction in temporal cortex pyramidal neurons and cerebellar Purkinje cell neurons in control, Braak stage III-IV (early/mid-dementia) and Braak stage VI (severe dementia) cases. Pyramidal neurons degenerate in Alzheimer's disease whereas Purkinje cells are less affected. These studies revealed that the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers are disrupted in Braak stage III-IV pyramidal but not Purkinje cell neurons. Thus, we identify a new pathogenic event in post-mortem Alzheimer's disease brains. The implications of our findings for Alzheimer's disease mechanisms are discussed.

Genetic compendium of 1511 human brains available through the UK Medical Research Council Brain Banks Network Resource.

Given the central role of genetic factors in the pathogenesis of common neurodegenerative disorders, it is critical that mechanistic studies in human tissue are interpreted in a genetically enlightened context. To address this, we performed exome sequencing and copy number variant analysis on 1511 frozen human brains with a diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease (AD, n = 289), frontotemporal dementia/amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (FTD/ALS, n = 252), Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD, n = 239), Parkinson's disease (PD, n = 39), dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB, n = 58), other neurodegenerative, vascular, or neurogenetic disorders (n = 266), and controls with no significant neuropathology (n = 368). Genomic DNA was extracted from brain tissue in all cases before exome sequencing (Illumina Nextera 62 Mb capture) with variants called by FreeBayes; copy number variant (CNV) analysis (Illumina HumanOmniExpress-12 BeadChip); C9orf72 repeat expansion detection; and APOE genotyping. Established or likely pathogenic heterozygous, compound heterozygous, or homozygous variants, together with the C9orf72 hexanucleotide repeat expansions and a copy number gain of APP, were found in 61 brains. In addition to known risk alleles in 349 brains (23.9% of 1461 undergoing exome sequencing), we saw an association between rare variants in GRN and DLB. Rare CNVs were found in <1.5% of brains, including copy number gains of PRPH that were overrepresented in AD. Clinical, pathological, and genetic data are available, enabling the retrieval of specific frozen brains through the UK Medical Research Council Brain Banks Network. This allows direct access to pathological and control human brain tissue based on an individual's genetic architecture, thus enabling the functional validation of known genetic risk factors and potentially pathogenic alleles identified in future studies.

Plasma p-tau181 accurately predicts Alzheimer's disease pathology at least 8 years prior to post-mortem and improves the clinical characterisation of cognitive decline.

The neuropathological confirmation of amyloid-ß (Aß) plaques and tau neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) remains the gold standard for a definitive diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Nowadays, the in vivo diagnosis of AD is greatly aided by both cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and positron emission tomography (PET) biomarkers. Although highly accurate, their broad implementation is restricted by high cost, limited accessibility and invasiveness. We recently developed a high-performance, ultrasensitive immunoassay for the quantification of tau phosphorylated at threonine-181 (p-tau181) in plasma, which identifies AD pathophysiology with high accuracy. However, it remains unclear whether plasma p-tau181, measured years before the death, can predict the eventual neuropathological confirmation of AD, and successfully discriminates AD from non-AD dementia pathologies. We studied a unique cohort of 115 individuals with longitudinal blood collections with clinical evaluation at 8, 4 and 2 years prior to neuropathological assessment at death. The results demonstrate that plasma p-tau181 associates better with AD neuropathology and Braak staging than a clinical diagnosis 8 years before post-mortem. Moreover, while all patients had a diagnosis of AD dementia during life, plasma p-tau181 proved to discriminate AD from non-AD pathologies with high accuracy (AUC = 97.4%, 95% CI = 94.1-100%) even 8 years before death. Additionally, the longitudinal trajectory of plasma p-tau181 was assessed in all patients. We found that the main increases in plasma p-tau181 occurred between 8 and 4 years prior to death in patients with AD neuropathology and later plateauing. In contrast, non-AD pathologies and controls exhibited minor, albeit significant, increases in p-tau181 up until death. Overall, our study demonstrates that plasma p-tau181 is highly predictive and specific of AD neuropathology years before post-mortem examination. These data add further support for the use of plasma p-tau181 to aid clinical management in primary care and recruitment for clinical trials.

Distribution patterns of tau pathology in progressive supranuclear palsy.

Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) is a 4R-tauopathy predominated by subcortical pathology in neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendroglia associated with various clinical phenotypes. In the present international study, we addressed the question of whether or not sequential distribution patterns can be recognized for PSP pathology. We evaluated heat maps and distribution patterns of neuronal, astroglial, and oligodendroglial tau pathologies and their combinations in different clinical subtypes of PSP in postmortem brains. We used conditional probability and logistic regression to model the sequential distribution of tau pathologies across different brain regions. Tau pathology uniformly predominates in the neurons of the pallido-nigro-luysian axis in different clinical subtypes. However, clinical subtypes are distinguished not only by total tau load but rather cell-type (neuronal versus glial) specific vulnerability patterns of brain regions suggesting distinct dynamics or circuit-specific segregation of propagation of tau pathologies. For Richardson syndrome (n = 81) we recognize six sequential steps of involvement of brain regions by the combination of cellular tau pathologies. This is translated to six stages for the practical neuropathological diagnosis by the evaluation of the subthalamic nucleus, globus pallidus, striatum, cerebellum with dentate nucleus, and frontal and occipital cortices. This system can be applied to further clinical subtypes by emphasizing whether they show caudal (cerebellum/dentate nucleus) or rostral (cortical) predominant, or both types of pattern. Defining cell-specific stages of tau pathology helps to identify preclinical or early-stage cases for the better understanding of early pathogenic events, has implications for understanding the clinical subtype-specific dynamics of disease-propagation, and informs tau-neuroimaging on distribution patterns.