Axial patterning in snakes and caecilians: evidence for an alternative interpretation of the Hox code.

It is generally assumed that the characteristic deregionalized body plan of species with a snake-like morphology evolved through a corresponding homogenization of Hox gene expression domains along the primary axis. Here, we examine the expression of Hox genes in snake embryos and show that a collinear pattern of Hox expression is retained within the paraxial mesoderm of the trunk. Genes expressed at the anterior and most posterior, regionalized, parts of the skeleton correspond to the expected anatomical boundaries. Unexpectedly however, also the dorsal (thoracic), homogenous rib-bearing region of trunk, is regionalized by unconventional gradual anterior limits of Hox expression that are not obviously reflected in the skeletal anatomy. In the lateral plate mesoderm we also detect regionalized Hox expression yet the forelimb marker Tbx5 is not restricted to a rudimentary forelimb domain but is expressed throughout the entire flank region. Analysis of several Hox genes in a caecilian amphibian, which convergently evolved a deregionalized body plan, reveals a similar global collinear pattern of Hox expression. The differential expression of posterior, vertebra-modifying or even rib-suppressing Hox genes within the dorsal region is inconsistent with the homogeneity in vertebral identity. Our results suggest that the evolution of a deregionalized, snake-like body involved not only alterations in Hox gene cis-regulation but also a different downstream interpretation of the Hox code.

The serine protease HtrA1 is upregulated in the human placenta during pregnancy.

The placenta has a dynamic and continuous capacity for self-renewal. The molecular mechanisms responsible for controlling trophoblast proliferation are still unclear. It is generally accepted that the simultaneous activity of proteins involved in cell proliferation, apoptosis, and extracellular matrix degradation plays an important role in correct placental development. We investigated in depth the expression of the serine protease HtrA1 during pregnancy in human placenta by in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry, we demonstrated that HtrA1 displayed a low level of expression in the first trimester of gestation and a strong increase of HtrA1 expression in the third trimester. Finally, by electron microscopy, we demonstrated that HtrA1 was localized either in the cytoplasm of placental cells, especially close to microvilli that characterized the plasma membrane of syncytiotrophoblast cells, or in the extracytoplasmic space of the stroma of placental villi, particularly in the spaces between collagen fibers and on collagen fibers themselves. The expression pattern of HtrA1 in human placentas strongly suggests a role for this protein in placental development and function. Moreover, on the basis of its subcellular distribution it can be postulated that HtrA1 acts on different targets, such as intracellular growth factors or extracellular matrix proteins, to favor the correct formation/function of the placenta.

The serine protease HtrA1 specifically interacts and degrades the tuberous sclerosis complex 2 protein.

Hamartin and tuberin are products of the tumor suppressor genes TSC1 and TSC2, respectively. Mutations affecting either gene result in the tuberous sclerosis syndrome, a neurologic genetic disorder characterized by the formation of multiple benign tumors or hamartomas. In this study, we report the identification of TSC2, but not TSC1, as a substrate of HtrA1, a member of the human HtrA family proteins of serine proteases. We show the direct interaction and colocalization in the cytoplasm of HtrA1 and TSC2 and that HtrA1 cleaves TSC2 both in vitro and in vivo. Finally, we show that alterations in HtrA1 expression cause modifications in phosphorylation status of two downstream targets of TSC2: 4E-BP1 and S6K. Our data suggest that, under particular physiologic or pathologic conditions, HtrA1 degrades TSC2 and activates the downstream targets. Considering that HtrA1 levels are significantly increased during embryogenesis, we speculate that one of the targets of HtrA1 activity during fetal development is the TSC2-TSC1 pathway.