Neutrophils in aging and aging-related pathologies.

Over the past millennia, life expectancy has drastically increased. While a mere 25 years during Bronze and Iron ages, life expectancy in many European countries and in Japan is currently above 80 years. Such an increase in life expectancy is a result of improved diet, life style, and medical care. Yet, increased life span and aging also represent the most important non-modifiable risk factors for several pathologies including cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer. In recent years, neutrophils have been implicated in all of these pathologies. Hence, this review provides an overview of how aging impacts neutrophil production and function and conversely how neutrophils drive aging-associated pathologies. Finally, we provide a perspective on how processes of neutrophil-driven pathologies in the context of aging can be targeted therapeutically.

IL-1ß in breast cancer bone metastasis.

Bone is the most common site for advanced breast cancer to metastasise. The proinflammatory cytokine, interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) plays a complex and contradictory role in this process. Recent studies have demonstrated that breast cancer patients whose primary tumours express IL-1ß are more likely to experience relapse in bone or other organs. Importantly, IL-1ß affects different stages of the metastatic process including growth of the primary tumour, epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), dissemination of tumour cells into the blood stream, tumour cell homing to the bone microenvironment and, once in bone, this cytokine participates in the interaction between cancer cells and bone cells, promoting metastatic outgrowth at this site. Interestingly, although inhibition of IL-1ß signalling has been shown to have potent anti-metastatic effects, inhibition of the activity of this cytokine has contradictory effects on primary tumours, sometimes reducing but often promoting their growth. In this review, we focus on the complex roles of IL-1ß on breast cancer bone metastasis: specifically, we discuss the distinct effects of IL-1ß derived from tumour cells and/or microenvironment on inhibition/induction of primary breast tumour growth, induction of the metastatic process through the EMT, promotion of tumour cell dissemination into the bone metastatic niche and formation of overt metastases.

Development of clinically relevant in vivo metastasis models using human bone discs and breast cancer patient-derived xenografts.

BACKGROUND: Late-stage breast cancer preferentially metastasises to bone; despite advances in targeted therapies, this condition remains incurable. The lack of clinically relevant models for studying breast cancer metastasis to a human bone microenvironment has stunted the development of effective treatments for this condition. To address this problem, we have developed humanised mouse models in which breast cancer patient-derived xenografts (PDXs) metastasise to human bone implants with low variability and high frequency. METHODS: To model the human bone environment, bone discs from femoral heads of patients undergoing hip replacement surgery were implanted subcutaneously into NOD/SCID mice. For metastasis studies, 7 patient-derived xenograft tumours (PDX: BB3RC32, ER+ PR+ HER2-; BB2RC08, ER+ PR+ ER2-; BB6RC37, ER- PR- HER2- and BB6RC39, ER+ PR+ HER2+), MDA-MB-231-luc2, T47D-luc2 or MCF7-Luc2 cells were injected into the 4th mammary ducts and metastases monitored by luciferase imaging and confirmed on histological sections. Bone integrity, viability and vascularisation were assessed by uCT, calcein uptake and histomorphometry. Expression profiling of genes/proteins during different stages of metastasis were assessed by whole genome Affymetrix array, real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry. Importance of IL-1 was confirmed following anakinra treatment. RESULTS: Implantation of femoral bone provided a metabolically active, human-specific site for tumour cells to metastasise to. After 4 weeks, bone implants were re-vascularised and demonstrated active bone remodelling (as evidenced by the presence of osteoclasts, osteoblasts and calcein uptake). Restricting bone implants to the use of subchondral bone and introduction of cancer cells via intraductal injection maximised metastasis to human bone implants. MDA-MB-231 cells specifically metastasised to human bone (70% metastases) whereas T47D, MCF7, BB3RC32, BB2RC08, and BB6RC37 cells metastasised to both human bone and mouse bones. Importantly, human bone was the preferred metastatic site especially from ER+ PDX (100% metastasis human bone compared with 20-75% to mouse bone), whereas ER-ve PDX developed metastases in 20% of human and 20% of mouse bone. Breast cancer cells underwent a series of molecular changes as they progressed from primary tumours to bone metastasis including altered expression of IL-1B, IL-1R1, S100A4, CTSK, SPP1 and RANK. Inhibiting IL-1B signalling significantly reduced bone metastasis. CONCLUSIONS: Our reliable and clinically relevant humanised mouse models provide significant advancements in modelling of breast cancer bone metastasis.

Automation of Technology for Cancer Research.

Zebrafish embryos can be obtained for research purposes in large numbers at low cost and embryos develop externally in limited space, making them highly suitable for high-throughput cancer studies and drug screens. Non-invasive live imaging of various processes within the larvae is possible due to their transparency during development, and a multitude of available fluorescent transgenic reporter lines.To perform high-throughput studies, handling large amounts of embryos and larvae is required. With such high number of individuals, even minute tasks may become time-consuming and arduous. In this chapter, an overview is given of the developments in the automation of various steps of large scale zebrafish cancer research for discovering important cancer pathways and drugs for the treatment of human disease. The focus lies on various tools developed for cancer cell implantation, embryo handling and sorting, microfluidic systems for imaging and drug treatment, and image acquisition and analysis. Examples will be given of employment of these technologies within the fields of toxicology research and cancer research.

Novel Methods of Targeting IL-1 Signalling for the Treatment of Breast Cancer Bone Metastasis.

Breast cancer bone metastasis is currently incurable. Evidence suggests that inhibiting IL-1 signalling with the IL1R antagonist, Anakinra, or the IL1ß antibody, Canakinumab, prevents metastasis and almost eliminates breast cancer growth in the bone. However, these drugs increase primary tumour growth. We, therefore, investigated whether targeting other members of the IL-1 pathway (Caspase-1, IL1ß or IRAK1) could reduce bone metastases without increasing tumour growth outside of the bone. Inhibition of IL-1 via MLX01 (IL1ß secretion inhibitor), VRT043198/VX765 (Caspase-1 inhibitor), Pacritinib (IRAK1 inhibitor) or Anakinra (IL1R antagonist) on tumour cell viability, migration and invasion were assessed in mouse mammary E0771 and Py8119 cells in vitro and on primary tumour growth, spontaneous metastasis and metastatic outgrowth in vivo. In vitro, Inhibition of IL-1 signalling by MLX01, VRT043198 and Anakinra reduced migration of E0771 and Py8119 cells and reversed tumour-derived IL1ß induced-increased invasion and migration towards bone cells. In vivo, VX765 and Anakinra significantly reduced spontaneous metastasis and metastatic outgrowth in the bone, whereas MLX01 reduced primary tumour growth and bone metastasis. Pacritinib had no effect on metastasis in vitro or in vivo. Targeting IL-1 signalling with small molecule inhibitors may provide a new therapeutic strategy for breast cancer bone metastasis.

IL-1B drives opposing responses in primary tumours and bone metastases; harnessing combination therapies to improve outcome in breast cancer.

Breast cancer bone metastasis is currently incurable, ~75% of patients with late-stage breast cancer develop disease recurrence in bone and available treatments are only palliative. We have previously shown that production of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1B (IL-1B) by breast cancer cells drives bone metastasis in patients and in preclinical in vivo models. In the current study, we have investigated how IL-1B from tumour cells and the microenvironment interact to affect primary tumour growth and bone metastasis through regulation of the immune system, and whether targeting IL-1 driven changes to the immune response improves standard of care therapy for breast cancer bone metastasis. Using syngeneic IL-1B/IL1R1 knock out mouse models in combination with genetic manipulation of tumour cells to overexpress IL-1B/IL1R1, we found that IL-1B signalling elicited an opposite response in primary tumours compared with bone metastases. In primary tumours, IL-1B inhibited growth, by impairing the infiltration of innate immune cell subsets with potential anti-cancer functions but promoted enhanced tumour cell migration. In bone, IL-1B stimulated the development of osteolytic metastases. In syngeneic models of breast cancer, combining standard of care treatments (Doxorubicin and Zoledronic acid) with the IL-1 receptor antagonist Anakinra inhibited both primary tumour growth and metastasis. Anakinra had opposite effects on the immune response compared to standard of care treatment, and its anti-inflammatory signature was maintained in the combination therapy. These data suggest that targeting IL-1B signalling may provide a useful therapeutic approach to inhibit bone metastasis and improve efficacy of current treatments for breast cancer patients.

The Receptor Tyrosine Kinase RON and Its Isoforms as Therapeutic Targets in Ewing Sarcoma.

The receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) RON is linked to an aggressive metastatic phenotype of carcinomas. While gaining interest as a therapeutic target, RON remains unstudied in sarcomas. In Ewing sarcoma, we identified RON among RTKs conferring resistance to insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF1R) targeting. Therefore, we explored RON in pediatric sarcoma cell lines and an embryonic Tg(kdrl:mCherry) zebrafish model, using an shRNA-based approach. To examine RON-IGF1R crosstalk, we employed the clinical-grade monoclonal antibody IMC-RON8, alone and together with the IGF1R-antibody IMC-A12. RON silencing demonstrated functions in vitro and in vivo, particularly within micrometastatic cellular capacities. Signaling studies revealed a unidirectional IGF1-mediated cross-activation of RON. Yet, IMC-A12 failed to sensitize cells to IMC-RON8, suggesting additional mechanisms of RON activation. Here, RT-PCR revealed that childhood sarcomas express short-form RON, an isoform resistant to antibody-mediated targeting. Interestingly, in contrast to carcinomas, treatment with DNA methyltransferase inhibitor did not diminish but increased short-form RON expression. Thus, this first report supports a role for RON in the metastatic progression of Ewing sarcoma. While principal molecular functions appear transferrable between carcinomas, Ewing sarcoma and possibly more common sarcoma subtypes, RON highlights that specific regulations of cellular networks and isoforms require better understanding to successfully transfer targeting strategies.

Animal Models of Breast Cancer Bone Metastasis.

This chapter is designed to provide a comprehensive overview outlining the different in vivo models available for research into breast cancer bone metastasis. The main focus is to guide the researcher through the methodological processes required to establish and utilize these models within their own laboratory. These detailed methods are designed to enable the acquisition of accurate and meaningful results that can be used for publication and future translation into clinical benefit for women with breast cancer-induced bone metastasis.

Endogenous Production of IL1B by Breast Cancer Cells Drives Metastasis and Colonization of the Bone Microenvironment.

PURPOSE: Breast cancer bone metastases are incurable, highlighting the need for new therapeutic targets. After colonizing bone, breast cancer cells remain dormant, until signals from the microenvironment stimulate outgrowth into overt metastases. Here we show that endogenous production of IL1B by tumor cells drives metastasis and growth in bone. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Tumor/stromal IL1B and IL1 receptor 1 (IL1R1) expression was assessed in patient samples and effects of the IL1R antagonist, Anakinra, or the IL1B antibody canakinumab on tumor growth and spontaneous metastasis were measured in a humanized mouse model of breast cancer bone metastasis. Effects of tumor cell-derived IL1B on bone colonization and parameters associated with metastasis were measured in MDA-MB-231, MCF7, and T47D cells transfected with IL1B/control. RESULTS: In tissue samples from >1,300 patients with stage II/III breast cancer, IL1B in tumor cells correlated with relapse in bone (HR = 1.85; 95% CI, 1.05-3.26; P = 0.02) and other sites (HR = 2.09; 95% CI, 1.26-3.48; P = 0.0016). In a humanized model of spontaneous breast cancer metastasis to bone, Anakinra or canakinumab reduced metastasis and reduced the number of tumor cells shed into the circulation. Production of IL1B by tumor cells promoted epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (altered E-Cadherin, N-Cadherin, and G-Catenin), invasion, migration, and bone colonization. Contact between tumor and osteoblasts or bone marrow cells increased IL1B secretion from all three cell types. IL1B alone did not stimulate tumor cell proliferation. Instead, IL1B caused expansion of the bone metastatic niche leading to tumor proliferation. CONCLUSIONS: Pharmacologic inhibition of IL1B has potential as a novel treatment for breast cancer metastasis.

Microenvironmental IL1ß promotes breast cancer metastatic colonisation in the bone via activation of Wnt signalling.

Dissemination of tumour cells to the bone marrow is an early event in breast cancer, however cells may lie dormant for many years before bone metastases develop. Treatment for bone metastases is not curative, therefore new adjuvant therapies which prevent the colonisation of disseminated cells into metastatic lesions are required. There is evidence that cancer stem cells (CSCs) within breast tumours are capable of metastasis, but the mechanism by which these colonise bone is unknown. Here, we establish that bone marrow-derived IL1ß stimulates breast cancer cell colonisation in the bone by inducing intracellular NFkB and CREB signalling in breast cancer cells, leading to autocrine Wnt signalling and CSC colony formation. Importantly, we show that inhibition of this pathway prevents both CSC colony formation in the bone environment, and bone metastasis. These findings establish that targeting IL1ß-NFKB/CREB-Wnt signalling should be considered for adjuvant therapy to prevent breast cancer bone metastasis.

Inhibition of ErbB kinase signalling promotes resolution of neutrophilic inflammation.

Neutrophilic inflammation with prolonged neutrophil survival is common to many inflammatory conditions, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). There are few specific therapies that reverse neutrophilic inflammation, but uncovering mechanisms regulating neutrophil survival is likely to identify novel therapeutic targets. Screening of 367 kinase inhibitors in human neutrophils and a zebrafish tail fin injury model identified ErbBs as common targets of compounds that accelerated inflammation resolution. The ErbB inhibitors gefitinib, CP-724714, erbstatin and tyrphostin AG825 significantly accelerated apoptosis of human neutrophils, including neutrophils from people with COPD. Neutrophil apoptosis was also increased in Tyrphostin AG825 treated-zebrafish in vivo. Tyrphostin AG825 decreased peritoneal inflammation in zymosan-treated mice, and increased lung neutrophil apoptosis and macrophage efferocytosis in a murine acute lung injury model. Tyrphostin AG825 and knockdown of egfra and erbb2 by CRISPR/Cas9 reduced inflammation in zebrafish. Our work shows that inhibitors of ErbB kinases have therapeutic potential in neutrophilic inflammatory disease.

The role of IL-1B in breast cancer bone metastasis.

Approximately 75% of patients with late-stage breast cancer will develop bone metastasis. This condition is currently considered incurable and patients' life expectancy is limited to 2-3 years following diagnosis of bone involvement. Interleukin (IL)-1B is a pro-inflammatory cytokine whose expression in primary tumours has been identified as a potential biomarker for predicting breast cancer patients at increased risk for developing bone metastasis. In this review, we discuss how IL-1B from both the tumour cells and the tumour microenvironment influence growth of primary breast tumours, dissemination into the bone metastatic niche and proliferation into overt metastases. Recent evidence indicates that targeting IL-1B signalling may provide promising new treatments that can hold tumour cells in a dormant state within bone thus preventing formation of overt bone metastases.

The chemokine receptor CXCR4 promotes granuloma formation by sustaining a mycobacteria-induced angiogenesis programme.

CXC chemokine receptor 4 plays a critical role in chemotaxis and leukocyte differentiation. Furthermore, there is increasing evidence that links this receptor to angiogenesis. Using the well-established zebrafish-Mycobacterium marinum model for tuberculosis, angiogenesis was recently found to be important for the development of cellular aggregates called granulomas that contain the mycobacteria and are the hallmark of tuberculosis disease. Here, we found that initiation of the granuloma-associated proangiogenic programme requires CXCR4 signalling. The nascent granulomas in cxcr4b-deficient zebrafish embryos were poorly vascularised, which in turn also delayed bacterial growth. Suppressed infection expansion in cxcr4b mutants could not be attributed to an overall deficient recruitment of leukocytes or to different intramacrophage bacterial growth rate, as cxcr4b mutants displayed similar microbicidal capabilities against initial mycobacterial infection and the cellular composition of granulomatous lesions was similar to wildtype siblings. Expression of vegfaa was upregulated to a similar extent in cxcr4b mutants and wildtypes, suggesting that the granuloma vascularisation phenotype of cxcr4b mutants is independent of vascular endothelial growth factor.

Inhibition of signaling between human CXCR4 and zebrafish ligands by the small molecule IT1t impairs the formation of triple-negative breast cancer early metastases in a zebrafish xenograft model.

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a highly aggressive and recurrent type of breast carcinoma that is associated with poor patient prognosis. Because of the limited efficacy of current treatments, new therapeutic strategies need to be developed. The CXCR4-CXCL12 chemokine signaling axis guides cell migration in physiological and pathological processes, including breast cancer metastasis. Although targeted therapies to inhibit the CXCR4-CXCL12 axis are under clinical experimentation, still no effective therapeutic approaches have been established to block CXCR4 in TNBC. To unravel the role of the CXCR4-CXCL12 axis in the formation of TNBC early metastases, we used the zebrafish xenograft model. Importantly, we demonstrate that cross-communication between the zebrafish and human ligands and receptors takes place and human tumor cells expressing CXCR4 initiate early metastatic events by sensing zebrafish cognate ligands at the metastatic site. Taking advantage of the conserved intercommunication between human tumor cells and the zebrafish host, we blocked TNBC early metastatic events by chemical and genetic inhibition of CXCR4 signaling. We used IT1t, a potent CXCR4 antagonist, and show for the first time its promising anti-tumor effects. In conclusion, we confirm the validity of the zebrafish as a xenotransplantation model and propose a pharmacological approach to target CXCR4 in TNBC.

Imaging of Human Cancer Cell Proliferation, Invasion, and Micrometastasis in a Zebrafish Xenogeneic Engraftment Model.

The xenograft model, using the early life stages of the zebrafish, allows imaging of tumor cell behavior both on a single cell and whole organism level, over time, within a week. This robust and reproducible assay can be used as an intermediate step between in vitro techniques and the expensive, and time consuming, murine models of cancer invasion and metastasis.In this chapter, a detailed protocol to inject human cancer cells into the blood circulation of a zebrafish embryo is described; the engraftment procedure is then followed by visualization and quantification methods of tumor cell proliferation, invasion, and micrometastasis formation during subsequent larval development. Interaction with the host microenvironment is also considered.

Zebrafish as a model system for characterization of nanoparticles against cancer.

Therapeutic nanoparticles (NPs) have great potential to deliver drugs against human diseases. Encapsulation of drugs in NPs protects them from being metabolized, while they are delivered specifically to a target site, thereby reducing toxicity and other side-effects. However, non-specific tissue accumulation of NPs, for example in macrophages, especially in the spleen and liver is a general problem with many NPs being developed for cancer therapy. To address the problem of non-specific tissue accumulation of NPs we describe the development of the zebrafish embryo as a transparent vertebrate system for characterization of NPs against cancer. We show that injection of human cancer cells results in tumor-like structures, and that subsequently injected fluorescent NPs, either made of polystyrene or liposomes can be imaged in real-time. NP biodistribution and general in vivo properties can be easily monitored in embryos having selective fluorescent labeling of specific tissues. We demonstrate in vitro, by using optical tweezer micromanipulation, microscopy and flow cytometry that polyethylene glycol (PEG) coating of NPs decreases the level of adhesion of NPs to macrophages, and also to cancer cells. In vivo in zebrafish embryos, PEG coating resulted in longer NP circulation times, decreased macrophage uptake, and reduced adhesion to the endothelium. Importantly, liposomes were observed to accumulate passively and selectively in tumor-like structures comprised of human cancer cells. These results show that zebrafish embryo is a powerful system for microscopy-based screening of NPs on the route to preclinical testing.