Extensive Histopathological Characterization of Inflamed Bowel in the Dextran Sulfate Sodium Mouse Model with Emphasis on Clinically Relevant Biomarkers and Targets for Drug Development.

This study aims to develop a reliable and reproducible inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) murine model based on a careful spatial-temporal histological characterization. Secondary aims included extensive preclinical studies focused on the in situ expression of clinically relevant biomarkers and targets involved in IBD. C57BL/6 female mice were used to establish the IBD model. Colitis was induced by the oral administration of 2% Dextran Sulfate Sodium (DSS) for 5 days, followed by 2, 4 or 9 days of water. Histological analysis was performed by sectioning the whole colon into rings of 5 mm each. Immunohistochemical analyses were performed for molecular targets of interest for monitoring disease activity, treatment response and predicting outcome. Data reported here allowed us to develop an original scoring method useful as a tool for the histological assessment of preclinical models of DSS-induced IBD. Immunohistochemical data showed a significant increase in TNF-α, α4ß7, VEGFRII, GR-1, CD25, CD3 and IL-12p40 expression in DSS mice if compared to controls. No difference was observed for IL-17, IL-23R, IL-36R or F480. Knowledge of the spatial-temporal pattern distribution of the pathological lesions of a well-characterized disease model lays the foundation for the study of the tissue expression of meaningful predictive biomarkers, thereby improving translational success rates of preclinical studies for a personalized management of IBD patients.

Copper-64 labeled nanoparticles for positron emission tomography imaging: a review of the recent literature.

INTRODUCTION: Nuclear medicine plays a crucial role for personalized therapy, mainly in oncology. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy present some disadvantages and research is shifting toward nanotechnology with significant improvements in therapy and diagnosis of several cancers. Indeed, nanoparticles can be tagged with different radioisotopes for single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET) imaging and for therapy. This review describes the current state of the art of 64Copper-labeled nanoparticles for PET imaging of cancer. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION: We performed a systematic analysis of literature using the terms "64CuCl2," "64Cu," "Copper" AND "nanoparticle" AND "PET" in online databases: i.e. PubMed/MEDLINE and Scopus. The search was limited to English papers and original articles. We excluded articles not in English language, abstracts, case reports, review articles and meeting presentations. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS: Amongst the 116 articles retrieved, 88 were excluded because reviews, or not in English, or only in-vitro studies or meeting presentations. We considered only 28 original papers. The most used nanoparticles are liposomes and they are mainly used in breast cancer although other animal models of cancer have been also investigated. CONCLUSIONS: The results showed that nanoparticles can be considered a promising radiopharmaceutical for PET imaging of different type of cancer.

Comparison of 99mTc-UBI 29-41, 99mTc-ciprofloxacin, 99mTc-ciprofloxacin dithiocarbamate and 111In-biotin for targeting experimental Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli foreign-body infections: an ex-vivo study.

BACKGROUND: Diagnosis of implant-associated infection is challenging. Several radiopharmaceuticals have been described but direct comparisons are limited. Here we compared in vitro and in an animal model 99mTc-UBI, 99mTc-ciprofloxacin, 99mTcN-CiproCS2 and 111In-DTPA-biotin for targeting E. coli (ATCC 25922) and S. aureus (ATCC 43335). METHODS: Stability controls were performed with the labelled radiopharmaceuticals during 6 hours in saline and serum. The in vitro binding to viable or killed bacteria was evaluated at 37 °C and 4 °C. For in vivo studies, Teflon cages were subcutaneously implanted in mice, followed by percutaneous infection. Biodistribution of i.v. injected radiolabelled radiopharmaceuticals were evaluated during 24 h in cages and dissected tissues. RESULTS: Labelling efficiency of all radiopharmaceuticals ranged between 94% and 98%, with high stability both in saline and in human serum. In vitro binding assays displayed a rapid but poor bacterial binding for all tested agents. Similar binding kinetic occurred also with heat-killed and ethanol-killed bacteria. In the tissue cage model, infection was detected at different time points: 99mTc-UBI and 99mTcN-CiproCS2 showed higher infected cage/sterile cage ratio at 24 hours for both E. coli and S. aureus; 99mTc-Ciprofloxacin at 24 hours for both E. coli and at 4 hours for S. aureus; 111In-DTPA-biotin accumulates faster in both E. coli and S. aureus infected cages. CONCLUSIONS: 99mTc-UBI, 99mTcN-CiproCS2 showed poor in vitro binding but good in vivo binding to E. coli only. 111In-DTPA-biotin showed poor in vitro binding but good in vivo binding to S. aureus and poor to E. coli. 99mTc-Ciprofloxacin showed poor in vitro binding but good in vivo binding to all tested bacteria. The mechanism of accumulation in infected sites remains to be elucidated.

Animal models for the study of inflammatory bowel diseases: a meta-analysis on modalities for imaging inflammatory lesions.

Inflammatory bowel diseases are lifelong disorders affecting the gastrointestinal tract characterized by intermittent disease flares and periods of remission with a progressive and destructive nature. Unfortunately, the exact etiology is still not completely known, therefore a causal therapy to cure the disease is not yet available. Current treatment options mainly encompass the use of non-specific anti-inflammatory agents and immunosuppressive drugs that cause significant side effects that often have a negative impact on patients' quality of life. As the majority of patients need a long-term follow-up it would be ideal to rely on a non-invasive technique with good compliance. Currently, the gold standard diagnostic tools for managing IBD are represented by invasive procedures such as colonoscopy and histopathology. Nevertheless, recent advances in imaging technology continue to improve the ability of imaging techniques to non-invasively monitor disease activity and treatment response in preclinical models of IBD. Novel and emerging imaging techniques not only allow direct visualization of intestinal inflammation, but also enable molecular imaging and targeting of specific alterations of the inflamed murine mucosa. Furthermore, molecular imaging advances allow us to increase our knowledge on the critical biological pathways involved in disease progression by characterizing in vivo processes at a cellular and molecular level and enabling significant improvements in the understanding of the etiology of IBD. This review presents a critical and updated overview on the imaging advances in animal models of IBD. Our aim is to highlight the potential beneficial impact and the range of applications that imaging techniques could offer for the improvement of the clinical monitoring and management of IBD patients: diagnosis, staging, determination of therapeutic targets, monitoring therapy and evaluation of the prognosis, personalized therapeutic approaches.

Radiolabelled FGF-2 for Imaging Activated Fibroblasts in the Tumor Micro-Environment.

Tumor associated fibroblasts (TAFs) play a key role in tumor growth and metastatization. TAFs overexpress different biomarkers that are usually expressed at low levels in physiological conditions. Among them are the fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs) that bind the fibroblast growth factors (FGFs). In particular, the overexpression of FGFR-2c in tumors has been associated with advanced clinical stages and increased metastatization. Here, we developed a non-invasive tool to evaluate, in vivo, the expression of FGFR-2c in metastatic cancer. This is based on 99mTc-labelled FGF-2. METHODS: 99mTc-FGF-2 was tested in vitro and in vivo in mice bearing allografts of sarcoma cells. Images of 99mTc-FGF-2 were acquired using a new portable high-resolution ultra-sensitive gamma camera for small animal imaging. RESULTS: FGF-2 was labeled with high specific activity but low labelling efficiency, thus requiring post-labeling purification by gel-filtration chromatography. In vitro binding to 2C human keratinocytes showed a Kd of 3.36 × 10-9 M. In mice bearing J774A.1 cell allografts, we observed high and rapid tumor uptake of 99mTc-FGF-2 with a high Tumor/Blood ratio at 24 h post-injection (26.1 %ID/g and 12.9 %ID) with low kidney activity and moderate liver activity. CONCLUSIONS: we labeled FGF-2 with 99mTc and showed nanomolar Kd in vitro with human keratinocytes expressing FGF-2 receptors. In mice, 99mTc-FGF-2 rapidly and efficiently accumulated in tumors expressing FGF-2 receptors. This new radiopharmaceutical could be used in humans to image TAFs.

Three-Dimensional In Vitro Tumor Spheroid Models for Evaluation of Anticancer Therapy: Recent Updates.

Advanced tissue engineering processes and regenerative medicine provide modern strategies for fabricating 3D spheroids. Several different 3D cancer models are being developed to study a variety of cancers. Three-dimensional spheroids can correctly replicate some features of solid tumors (such as the secretion of soluble mediators, drug resistance mechanisms, gene expression patterns and physiological responses) better than 2D cell cultures or animal models. Tumor spheroids are also helpful for precisely reproducing the three-dimensional organization and microenvironmental factors of tumors. Because of these unique properties, the potential of 3D cell aggregates has been emphasized, and they have been utilized in in vitro models for the detection of novel anticancer drugs. This review discusses applications of 3D spheroid models in nuclear medicine for diagnosis and therapy, immunotherapy, and stem cell and photodynamic therapy and also discusses the establishment of the anticancer activity of nanocarriers.

Current Status of SPECT Radiopharmaceuticals for Specific Bacteria Imaging.

Imaging infection still represents a challenge for researchers. Despite nuclear medicine (NM) offers valuable tools able to discriminate between infections and inflammation, there is an unmet clinical need to develop new strategies able to specifically target the causative pathogen, to select the best antimicrobial treatment for each patient and to accurately assess therapeutic efficacy. These aspects are commonly addressed by microbiology or histology but the diagnosis often relies on invasive procedures that are prone to contamination or sample bias and do not reflect the spatial heterogeneity of the infective process. Therefore, in the era of personalized medicine and treatment, a lot of efforts are in play to improve a personalized diagnosis. Molecular imaging is an ideal candidate for this purpose and, indeed, research is going fast to this direction aiming to find more selective and proper antimicrobial treatments and to overcome broad-spectrum antibiotic use, which still represents the major cause of bacterial drug-resistance. Several approaches for specifically image bacteria have been proposed and provided encouraging perspectives in preclinical studies. Nevertheless, the majority of these promising approaches are still confined in "bench stages" and crucial issues still need to be addressed before their translation in clinical practice. This review will focus on radiolabeled antibiotics for SPECT imaging of bacteria, their mechanisms of action, their potentiality and limitations for "bed-side" applications.

Methods for Radiolabeling Nanoparticles (Part 3): Therapeutic Use.

Following previously published systematic reviews on the diagnostic use of nanoparticles (NPs), in this manuscript, we report published methods for radiolabeling nanoparticles with therapeutic alpha-emitting, beta-emitting, or Auger's electron-emitting isotopes. After analyzing 234 papers, we found that different methods were used with the same isotope and the same type of nanoparticle. The most common type of nanoparticles used are the PLGA and PAMAM nanoparticles, and the most commonly used therapeutic isotope is 177Lu. Regarding labeling methods, the direct encapsulation of the isotope resulted in the most reliable and reproducible technique. Radiolabeled nanoparticles show promising results in metastatic breast and lung cancer, although this field of research needs more clinical studies, mainly on the comparison of nanoparticles with chemotherapy.

Present status and future trends in molecular imaging of lymphocytes.

Immune system is emerging as a crucial protagonist in a huge variety of oncologic and non-oncologic conditions including response to vaccines and viral infections (such as SARS-CoV-2). The increasing knowledge of molecular biology underlying these diseases allowed the identification of specific targets and the possibility to use tailored therapies against them. Immunotherapies and vaccines are, indeed, more and more used nowadays for treating infections, cancer and autoimmune diseases and, therefore, there is the need to identify, quantify and monitor immune cell trafficking before and after treatment. This approach will provide crucial information for therapy decision-making. Imaging of B and T-lymphocytes trafficking by using tailored radiopharmaceuticals proved to be a successful nuclear medicine tool. In this review, we will provide an overview of the state of art and future trends for "in vivo" imaging of lymphocyte trafficking and homing by mean of specific receptor-tailored radiopharmaceuticals.

Radioimmune Imaging of α4ß7 Integrin and TNFα for Diagnostic and Therapeutic Applications in Inflammatory Bowel Disease.

Imaging using radiolabelled monoclonal antibodies can provide, non-invasively, molecular information which allows for the planning of the best treatment and for monitoring the therapeutic response in cancer, as well as in chronic inflammatory diseases. In the present study, our main goal was to evaluate if a pre-therapy scan with radiolabelled anti-α4ß7 integrin or radiolabelled anti-TNFα mAb could predict therapeutic outcome with unlabelled anti-α4ß7 integrin or anti-TNFα mAb. To this aim, we developed two radiopharmaceuticals to study the expression of therapeutic targets for inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), to be used for therapy decision making. Both anti-α4ß7 integrin and anti-TNFα mAbs were successfully radiolabelled with technetium-99m with high labelling efficiency and stability. Dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis was used as a model for murine IBD and the bowel uptake of radiolabelled mAbs was evaluated ex vivo and in vivo by planar and SPECT/CT images. These studies allowed us to define best imaging strategy and to validate the specificity of mAb binding in vivo to their targets. Bowel uptake in four different regions was compared to immunohistochemistry (IHC) score (partial and global). Then, to evaluate the biomarker expression prior to therapy administration, in initial IBD, another group of DSS-treated mice was injected with radiolabelled mAb on day 2 of DSS administration (to quantify the presence of the target in the bowel) and then injected with a single therapeutic dose of unlabelled anti-α4ß7 integrin or anti-TNFα mAb. Good correlation was demonstrated between bowel uptake of radiolabelled mAb and immunohistochemistry (IHC) score, both in vivo and ex vivo. Mice treated with unlabelled α4ß7 integrin and anti-TNFα showed an inverse correlation between the bowel uptake of radiolabelled mAb and the histological score after therapy, proving that only mice with high α4ß7 integrin or TNFα expression will benefit of therapy with unlabelled mAb.

Methods for Radiolabelling Nanoparticles: SPECT Use (Part 1).

The use of nanoparticles (NPs) is rapidly increasing in nuclear medicine (NM) for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Their wide use is due to their chemical-physical characteristics and possibility to deliver several molecules. NPs can be synthetised by organic and/or inorganic materials and they can have different size, shape, chemical composition, and charge. These factors influence their biodistribution, clearance, and targeting ability in vivo. NPs can be designed to encapsulate inside the core or bind to the surface several molecules, including radionuclides, for different clinical applications. Either diagnostic or therapeutic radioactive NPs can be synthetised, making a so-called theragnostic tool. To date, there are several methods for radiolabelling NPs that vary depending on both the physical and chemical properties of the NPs and on the isotope used. In this review, we analysed and compared different methods for radiolabelling NPs for single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) use.

Methods for Radiolabelling Nanoparticles: PET Use (Part 2).

The use of radiolabelled nanoparticles (NPs) is a promising nuclear medicine tool for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Thanks to the heterogeneity of their material (organic or inorganic) and their unique physical and chemical characteristics, they are highly versatile for their use in several medical applications. In particular, they have shown interesting results as radiolabelled probes for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. The high variability of NP types and the possibility to use several isotopes in the radiolabelling process implies different radiolabelling methods that have been applied over the previous years. In this review, we compare and summarize the different methods for NP radiolabelling with the most frequently used PET isotopes.

Imaging Activated-T-Lymphocytes in the Salivary Glands of Patients with Sjögren's Syndrome by 99mTc-Interleukin-2: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Implications.

Background: Sjögren's syndrome (SS) is a progressive autoimmune disease characterized by local mononuclear cell infiltration of the salivary and lachrymal glands. Labial biopsy demonstrates local infiltration by Th1 cells that produce pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-2 (IL2). The aim of this study was to assess the utility of 99mTc-labelled-IL2 (99mTc-IL2) in evaluating in vivo the extent and severity of lympho-mononuclear cell infiltration in the salivary glands of patients with SS. Methods: We investigated 48 patients with primary SS and 27 control subjects using 99mTc-IL2 scintigraphy. Furthermore, in a subgroup of 30 patients, we also performed 99mTc-pertechnetate scintigraphy (99mTcO4−) for evaluation of the salivary gland function. Results: 99mTc-IL2 uptake in the salivary glands of SS patients was higher than in the control subjects (1.30 ± 0.16 vs. 0.83 ± 0.08 for parotids and 1.36 ± 0.15 vs. 1.16 ± 0.07 for submandibular glands; p < 0.0001). The salivary gland uptake of 99mTc-IL2 in patients with a longer history of disease was lower compared with the recently diagnosed patients. A significant direct correlation was found between the uptake of 99mTc-IL2 and histology. Conclusions: 99mTc-IL2 scintigraphy showed that the degree of lymphocytic infiltration of major salivary glands is variable in patients with different disease durations. Patients with a high 99mTc-IL2 uptake could be efficiently treated with immuno-modulatory drugs and the efficacy of treatment could be followed-up by 99mTc-IL2 scintigraphy.

Synthesis and Biodistribution of 99mTc-Labeled PLGA Nanoparticles by Microfluidic Technique.

The aim of present study was to develop radiolabeled NPs to overcome the limitations of fluorescence with theranostic potential. Synthesis of PLGA-NPs loaded with technetium-99m was based on a Dean-Vortex-Bifurcation Mixer (DVBM) using an innovative microfluidic technique with high batch-to-batch reproducibility and tailored-made size of NPs. Eighteen different formulations were tested and characterized for particle size, zeta potential, polydispersity index, labeling efficiency, and in vitro stability. Overall, physical characterization by dynamic light scattering (DLS) showed an increase in particle size after radiolabeling probably due to the incorporation of the isotope into the PLGA-NPs shell. NPs of 60 nm (obtained by 5:1 PVA:PLGA ratio and 15 mL/min TFR with 99mTc included in PVA) had high labeling efficiency (94.20 ± 5.83%) and >80% stability after 24 h and showed optimal biodistribution in BALB/c mice. In conclusion, we confirmed the possibility of radiolabeling NPs with 99mTc using the microfluidics and provide best formulation for tumor targeting studies.

Immune cell labelling and tracking: implications for adoptive cell transfer therapies.

BACKGROUND: The understanding of the role of different immune cell subsets that infiltrate tumors can help researchers in developing new targeted immunotherapies to reactivate or reprogram them against cancer. In addition to conventional drugs, new cell-based therapies, like adoptive cell transfer, proved to be successful in humans. Indeed, after the approval of anti-CD19 CAR-T cell therapy, researchers are trying to extend this approach to other cancer or cell types. MAIN BODY: This review focuses on the different approaches to non-invasively monitor the biodistribution, trafficking and fate of immune therapeutic cells, evaluating their efficacy at preclinical and clinical stages. PubMed and Scopus databases were searched for published articles on the imaging of cell tracking in humans and preclinical models. CONCLUSION: Labelling specific immune cell subtypes with specific radiopharmaceuticals, contrast agents or optical probes can elucidate new biological mechanisms or predict therapeutic outcome of adoptive cell transfer therapies. To date, no technique is considered the gold standard to image immune cells in adoptive cell transfer therapies.

In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of 99mTc-Polymyxin B for Specific Targeting of Gram-Bacteria.

BACKGROUND: Infectious diseases are one of the main causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Nuclear molecular imaging would be of great help to non-invasively discriminate between septic and sterile inflammation through available radiopharmaceuticals, as none is currently available for clinical practice. Here, we describe the radiolabeling procedure and in vitro and in vivo studies of 99mTc-polymyxin B sulfate (PMB) as a new single photon emission imaging agent for the characterization of infections due to Gram-negative bacteria. RESULTS: Labeling efficiency was 97 ± 2% with an average molar activity of 29.5 ± 0.6 MBq/nmol. The product was highly stable in saline and serum up to 6 h. In vitro binding assay showed significant displaceable binding to Gram-negative bacteria but not to Gram-positive controls. In mice, 99mTc-HYNIC-PMB was mainly taken up by liver and kidneys. Targeting studies confirmed the specificity of 99mTc-HYNIC-PMB obtained in vitro, showing significantly higher T/B ratios for Gram-negative bacteria than Gram-positive controls. CONCLUSIONS: In vitro and in vivo results suggest that 99mTc-HYNIC-PMB has a potential for in vivo identification of Gram-negative bacteria in patients with infections of unknown etiology. However, further investigations are needed to deeply understand the mechanism of action and behavior of 99mTc-HYNIC-PMB in other animal models and in humans.

In Vivo Imaging of Thyroid Cancer with 99mTc-TR1401 and 99mTc-TR1402: A Comparison Study in Dogs.

Differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC) cells may lose NIS expression and iodine uptake, but usually express TSH receptors (TSHR). Therefore, the aim of our study was to compare two radiolabeled superagonist TSH analogues for DTC imaging. These analogues (namely TR1401 and TR1402) have a higher TSHR binding affinity than recombinant human TSH (Thyrogen®). Radiolabeling was performed with technetium-99m using an indirect method via HYNIC conjugation and was followed by in vitro quality controls and binding assay on TSHR-positive cell lines (ML-1). An in vitro binding assay was also performed and compared with radiolabeled human recombinant TSH. In vivo imaging was performed in four dogs with spontaneous follicular thyroid carcinoma with solid poorly differentiated areas with 99mTc-TR1401 SPECT/CT, 99mTc-TR1402 SPECT/CT, and [18F]FDG PET/CT on different days within 2 weeks. TR1401 and TR1402 were labeled with high specific activity (8.3 ± 1.2 MBq/µg) and retention of their biological activity and structural integrity. Both agonists were able to efficiently bind TSHR receptors expressed by cell lines with dissociation constants (Kd) of 2.7 nM for 99mTc-TR1401 and 0.5 nM for 99mTc-TR1402 compared with 99mTc-Thyrogen (Kd = 8.4 nM). In tumor-targeting experiments, a focal uptake was observed in dogs with spontaneous intraglandular thyroid carcinoma, in which TSHR expression was confirmed by immunohistochemistry. 99mTc-TR1402 provided higher T/B than 99mTc-TR1401 and [18F]FDG (12.9 ± 1.3, 10.2 ± 0.7, and 3.8 ± 0.6, respectively; all p < 0.001). Given these results, 99mTc-TR1402 appears to be a useful tool for in vivo imaging of thyroid cancer.

Radiopharmaceuticals for Breast Cancer and Neuroendocrine Tumors: Two Examples of How Tissue Characterization May Influence the Choice of Therapy.

Molecular medicine has gained clinical relevance for the detection and staging of oncological diseases, to guide therapy decision making and for therapy follow-up due to the availability of new highly sensitive hybrid imaging camera systems and the development of new tailored radiopharmaceuticals that target specific molecules. The knowledge of the expression of different receptors on the primary tumor and on metastases is important for both therapeutic and prognostic purposes and several approaches are available aiming to achieve personalized medicine in different oncological diseases. In this review, we describe the use of specific radiopharmaceuticals to image and predict therapy response in breast cancer and neuroendocrine tumors since they represent a paradigmatic example of the importance of tumoral characterization of hormonal receptors in order to plan a tailored treatment. The most attractive radiopharmaceuticals for breast cancer are 16α-[18F]-fluoro-17ß-estradiol for PET assessment of the estrogen expression, radiolabeled monoclonal antibody trastuzumab to image the human epidermal growth factor receptor 2, but also the imaging of androgen receptors with [18F]-fluorodihydrotestosterone.

Theranostic Designed Near-Infrared Fluorescent Poly (Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid) Nanoparticles and Preliminary Studies with Functionalized VEGF-Nanoparticles.

Poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid nanoparticles (PLGA-NPs) were approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for drug delivery in cancer. The enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect drives their accumulation minimizing the side effects of chemotherapeutics. Our aim was to develop a new theranostic tool for cancer diagnosis and therapy based on PLGA-NPs and to evaluate the added value of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) for enhanced tumor targeting. In vitro and in vivo properties of PLGA-NPs were tested and compared with VEGF-PLGA-NPs. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) was performed to evaluate the particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential of both preparations. Spectroscopy was used to confirm the absorption spectra in the near-infrared (NIR). In vivo, in BALB/c mice bearing a syngeneic tumor in the right thigh, intravenously injected PLGA-NPs showed a high target-to-muscle ratio (4.2 T/M at 24 h post-injection) that increased over time, with a maximum uptake at 72 h and a retention of the NPs up to 240 h. VEGF-PLGA-NPs accumulated in tumors 1.75 times more than PLGA-NPs with a tumor-to-muscle ratio of 7.90 ± 1.61 (versus 4.49 ± 0.54 of PLGA-NPs). Our study highlights the tumor-targeting potential of PLGA-NPs for diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Such NPs can be conjugated with proteins such as VEGF to increase accumulation in tumor lesions.

State of the Art of Natural Killer Cell Imaging: A Systematic Review.

Natural killer (NK) cell therapy is a promising alternative to conventional T cell-based treatments, although there is a lack of diagnostic tools to predict and evaluate therapeutic outcomes. Molecular imaging can offer several approaches to non-invasively address this issue. In this study, we systematically reviewed the literature to evaluate the state of the art of NK cell imaging and its translational potential. PubMed and Scopus databases were searched for published articles on the imaging of NK cells in humans and preclinical models. Study quality was evaluated following Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (QUADAS-2) criteria. We pooled studies as follows: Optical, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and nuclear medicine imaging with a total of 21 studies (n = 5, n = 8 and n = 8, respectively). Considering the limitation of comparing different imaging modalities, it appears that optical imaging (OI) of NK cells is very useful in a preclinical setting, but has the least translational potential. MRI provides high quality images without ionizing radiations with lower sensitivity. Nuclear medicine is the only imaging technique that has been applied in humans (four papers), but results were not outstanding due to a limited number of enrolled patients. At present, no technique emerged as superior over the others and more standardization is required in conducting human and animal studies.