Echocardiography in Advanced Heart Failure for Diagnosis, Management, and Prognosis.

Advanced heart failure, an end-stage disease characterized by high mortality and morbidity despite standard medical therapy, requires various therapeutic strategies like heart transplant and long-term mechanical circulatory support. Echocardiography is the main imaging technique to identify transitions to advanced stages of disease and guide risk stratification and therapeutic decision-making processes. Progressive development of advanced echocardiographic techniques allows more comprehensive assessment of the hemodynamic and structural profiles of patients with advanced heart failure, and its use in clinical practice continues to expand. This article provides an overview of basic and emerging echocardiographic tools to assess patients with advanced heart failure.

Beta-blocker therapy in heart transplant recipients: A review.

Beta-blockers are essential drugs for the treatment of many cardiovascular diseases, such as heart failure, acute and chronic ischemic heart disease, tachyarrhythmias, and hypertension. However, these drugs have not been used in cardiac transplant patients for many years owing to the fear that they could reduce cardiac output and functional capacity. In recent years, however, some evidence has shown that even in cardiac transplanted patients, ß-blockers are useful and effective in the treatment of sinus tachycardia, supraventricular and ventricular tachyarrhythmias, left ventricular systolic dysfunction, and arterial hypertension. Furthermore, some data have shown that the use of ß-blockers is associated with reduced mortality in heart transplant recipients. In this review, we summarize this evidence with particular emphasis on the practical aspects of the use of ß-blockers in post-transplantation patients to promote the use of this important class of drugs in clinical practice.

The diagnostic and therapeutic challenge of atrial flutter in children: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Palpitations represent a common cause for consultation in the pediatric Emergency Department (ED). Unlike adults, palpitations in children are less frequently dependent from the heart, recognizing other causes. CASE PRESENTATION: A 11-year-old male came to our pediatric ED for epigastric pain, vomiting and palpitations. During the previous 6 month the patient was affected by SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus). Electrocardiogram (ECG) revealed supraventricular tachycardia. Therefore, adenosine was administered unsuccessfully. The administration of adenosine, however, allowed us to make diagnosis of atypical atrial flutter. Multiple attempts at both electrical cardioversion, transesophageal atrial overdrive, and drug monotherapy were unsuccessful in our patient. Consequently, a triple therapy with amiodarone, flecainide, and beta-blocker was gradually designed to control the arrhythmic pattern with the restoration of a left upper atrial rhythm. There was not any evidence of sinus rhythm in the patient clinical history. CONCLUSIONS: The present study underlines the rarity of this type of dysrhythmia in childhood and the difficulties in diagnosis and management, above all in a patient who has never showed sinus rhythm. Raising awareness of all available treatment options is essential for a better management of dysrhythmia in children.

Safety and feasibility of upper limb cardiopulmonary exercise test in Friedreich ataxia.

AIMS: To explore the feasibility of upper limbs cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) in Friedreich ataxia (FRDA) patients and to compare the results with sex, age, and body mass index (BMI) matched cohort of healthy controls (HC). METHODS AND RESULTS: Cardiopulmonary exercise test was performed using an upper limbs cycle ergometer on fasting subjects. Peak oxygen uptake (peak VO2) was recorded as the mean value of VO2 during a 20 s period at the maximal effort of the test at an appropriate respiratory exchange rate. The ventilatory anaerobic threshold (AT) was detected by the use of the V-slope method. We performed echocardiography with an ultrasound system equipped with a 2.5 MHz multifrequency transducer for complete M-mode, two-dimensional, Doppler, and Tissue Doppler Imaging analyses. We studied 55 FRDA and 54 healthy matched controls (HC). Peak VO2 showed a significant 31% reduction in FRDA patients compared to HC (15.2 ± 5.7 vs. 22.0 ± 6.1 mL/kg/min; P < 0.001). Peak workload was reduced by 41% in FRDA (42.9 ± 12.5 vs. 73.1 ± 21.2 W; P < 0.001). In FRDA patients, peak VO2 is inversely correlated with the Scale for Assessment and Rating of Ataxia score, disease duration, and 9HPT performance, and directly correlated with activities of daily living. The AT occurred at 48% of peak workload time in FRDA patients and at 85% in HC (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Upper limb CPET is useful in the assessment of exercise tolerance and a possible tool to determine the functional severity of the mitochondrial oxidative defect in patients with FRDA. The cardiopulmonary exercise test is an ideal functional endpoint for Phases II and III trials through a simple, non-invasive, and safe exercise test.

Left Ventricular Assist Device Implantation in a Thrombosed Apical Aneurysm.

Left ventricular assist device implantation is a challenging procedure in the presence of a giant thrombosed aneurysm, and no standard surgical techniques are currently recommended in this setting. In this case, we report the successful implantation of a left ventricular assist device (HeartMate III) in a patient with a massive thrombosed apical aneurysm. The patient presented with extended antero-apical necrosis as a result of a delay in hospital admission for acute coronary syndrome due to the patient's concerns about the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak.

Use of sacubitril/valsartan as 'bridge to transplant' in patients with end-stage hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.

The end stage or burned-out phase is an uncommon but challenging clinical evolution of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). The management of end-stage HCM is empirically based on the use of drugs approved for heart failure with reduced ejection fraction; however, cardiac transplantation often represents the best option to improve survival. In our case, we describe the use of sacubitril/valsartan as a 'bridge to transplant' in a patient with end-stage HCM. After introducing the drug, enhancements in functional capacity, a reduction in natriuretic peptides and an increase in left ventricular ejection fraction occurred. Given their improved volume of oxygen consumption (VO2) peak and hemodynamic parameters, our patient was left off the waiting list for cardiac transplant and continues to be regularly followed-up with every 3 months.

Effects of Sacubitril/Valsartan on the Right Ventricular Arterial Coupling in Patients with Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction.

BACKGROUND: right ventricle-pulmonary artery (RV-PA) coupling assessed by measuring the tricuspid anular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE)/pulmonary artery systolic pressure (PASP) ratio has been recently proposed as an early marker of right ventricular dysfunction in patients with heart failure with a reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). METHODS: As the effects of sacubitril/valsartan therapy on RV-PA coupling remain unknown, this study aimed to analyse the effect of this drug on TAPSE/PASP in patients with HFrEF. We retrospectively analysed all outpatients with HFrEF referred to our unit between October 2016 and July 2018. RESULTS: At the 1-year follow-up, sacubitril/valsartan therapy was associated with a significant improvement in TAPSE (18.26 ± 3.7 vs. 19.6 ± 4.2 mm, p < 0.01), PASP (38.3 ± 15.7 vs. 33.7 ± 13.6, p < 0.05), and RV-PA coupling (0.57 ± 0.25 vs. 0.68 ± 0.30 p < 0.01). These improvements persisted at the 2-year follow-up. In the multivariable analysis, the improvement in the RV-PA coupling was independent of the left ventricular remodelling. CONCLUSIONS: in patients with HFrEF, sacubitril/valsartan improved the RV-PA coupling; however, further trials are necessary to evaluate the role of sacubitril/valsartan in the treatment of right ventricle (RV) dysfunction either associated or not associated with left ventricular dysfunction.

Beta Blockers Up-Titration in Patients with Heart Failure Reduced Ejection Fraction and Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy, a Single Center Study.

Clinical trials have shown the benefits of ß-blockers therapy in patients with heart failure reduced ejection fraction. These benefits include improved survival and a reduced need for hospitalization. Cardiac resynchronization therapy has emerged as an essential device-based therapy for symptomatic patients with heart failure reduced ejection fraction despite optimal pharmacologic treatment. The extent to which ß-blockers are being utilized in patients receiving cardiac resynchronization therapy is not well known. In this study, we evaluate the possibility of increasing ß-blockers doses in an unselected cohort of heart failure reduced ejection patients after cardiac resynchronization therapy capable defibrillator system implantation and the correlation between ß-blockers treatments and clinical outcome. Methods and results: Patients with heart failure reduced ejection fraction in ß-blockers therapy that underwent cardiac resynchronization therapy capable defibrillator system implantation between July 2008, and December 2016 were enrolled in the study. The ß-blockers dose was determined at the time of discharge and during follow-up. Cardiovascular mortality, hospitalization for worsening heart failure or arrhythmic storm and appropriate intervention of the device, were recorded. The study cohort included 480 patients, 289 patients (60.3%) had ß-blockers doses equal to the dose before CRT (Group 1), 191 patients (39.7%) had higher ß-blockers doses than those before the CRT implant (Group 2). Comparing the two groups, Group 2 have lower cardiovascular mortality, heart failure-related hospitalization, and arrhythmic events than Group 1. Conclusion: After initiating CRT, ß-blockers could be safely up-titrated at higher doses with the reduction in mortality, heart failure-related hospitalization, and arrhythmic events.

A common polymorphism in the SCN5A gene is associated with dilated cardiomyopathy.

AIMS: SCN5A is a disease-causing gene associated with familial dilated cardiomyopathy (FDC). We examined the possible association between a common polymorphism in the SCN5A gene (c.1673A>G-p.H558R; rs1805124) and the risk of dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) occurrence. METHODS: We genotyped 185 DCM cases (familial DCM, idiopathic DCM and postischemic DCM) and 251 controls for the p.H558R polymorphism in the SCN5A gene, to test the association of the molecular epidemiology of the individuals with the presence/absence of various types of DCM. RESULTS: Our results showed that the rs1805124 polymorphism was significantly associated with DCM, and the association was more significant in patients with FDC; furthermore, in these individuals, the less frequent GG genotype was associated with a 7.39-fold increased risk of disease [95% confidence interval (95% CI) = 2.88-18.96; P < 0.0001] compared with the AA genotype. Moreover, logistic regression analysis showed that GG carriers had a higher risk of DCM than AA + AG carriers (odds ratio = 5.45, 95% CI = 2.23-13.35; P < 0.001). No association was observed between the rs1805124 and DCM risk in postischemic DCM patients. CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrates an association between familial DCM and the rs1805124 polymorphism in the SCN5A gene, which may unravel additional genetic predisposition to the development of a multifactorial disease as DCM.

Management of Arrhythmias in Heart Failure.

Heart failure patients are predisposed to develop arrhythmias. Supraventricular arrhythmias can exacerbate the heart failure symptoms by decreasing the effective cardiac output and their control require pharmacological, electrical, or catheter-based intervention. In the setting of atrial flutter or atrial fibrillation, anticoagulation becomes paramount to prevent systemic or cerebral embolism. Patients with heart failure are also prone to develop ventricular arrhythmias that can present a challenge to the managing clinician. The management strategy depends on the type of arrhythmia, the underlying structural heart disease, the severity of heart failure, and the range from optimization of heart failure therapy to catheter ablation. Patients with heart failure, irrespective of ejection fraction are at high risk for developing sudden cardiac death, however risk stratification is a clinical challenge and requires a multiparametric evaluation for identification of patients who should undergo implantation of a cardioverter defibrillator. Finally, patients with heart failure can also develop symptomatic bradycardia, caused by sinus node dysfunction or atrio-ventricular block. The treatment of bradycardia in these patients with pacing is usually straightforward but needs some specific issue.

Pediatric Heart Failure: A Practical Guide to Diagnosis and Management.

Pediatric heart failure represents an important cause of morbidity and mortality in childhood. Currently, there are well-established guidelines for the management of heart failure in the adult population, but an equivalent consensus in children is lacking. In the clinical setting, ensuring an accurate diagnosis and defining etiology is essential to optimal treatment. Diuretics and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition are the first-line therapies, whereas beta-blockers and devices for electric therapy are less used in children than in adults. In the end-stage disease, heart transplantation is the best choice of treatment, while a left ventricular assist device can be used as a bridge to transplantation (due to the difficulties in finding organ donors), recovery (in the case of myocarditis), or destination therapy (for patients with systemic disease).

Exercise speckle-tracking strain imaging demonstrates impaired right ventricular contractile reserve in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.

AIMS: To analyse right ventricular (RV) systolic function in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) at rest and during exercise, and its possible correlation with left ventricular(LV) morphology and function. METHODS AND RESULTS: Standard echo, exercise stress echo, and RV 2D speckle-tracking strain (2DSE) were performed in 45 patients with HCM and in 45 age- and sex-comparable healthy controls. RV global longitudinal strain (GLS) was calculated by averaging local strains along the entire right ventricle. LV mass index and IVS wall thickness were significantly increased in HCM, while LV ejection fraction, RV diameters, RV tissue Doppler systolic peak and the RV end-systolic pressure-area relationship at rest were comparable between the two groups. Conversely, all transmitral Doppler indexes were significantly impaired in HCM. In addition, RV GLS and regional peak myocardial RV strains were significantly reduced in patients with HCM (all P<0.001). During physical effort, LV ejection fraction was comparable between the two groups. Conversely, LV E/Em ratio was significantly increased in HCM. Increase in TAPSE and RV tissue Doppler Sm peak velocity during effort were similar between the two groups. Conversely, increases of RV end-systolic pressure-area, regional and global RV strain were significantly lower in HCM patients (RV lateral strain: 10.3±3.5% of increase in HCM vs 20.5±4.5% in controls; p<0.0001). Multivariable analysis detected independent associations of RV lateral strain at peak stress with LV IVS thickness, maximal workload during exercise, and LV E/Em ratio during effort (all p<0.0001). An RV lateral 2DSE cut-off point of -14% differentiated controls and HCM with an 86%sensitivity and a 92% specificity. CONCLUSIONS: RV contractile reserve for HCM is impaired and this suggests that the lower resting values of RV in HCM may represent early subclinical myocardial damage, closely associated with exercise capacity.