UPLC-MS/MS analysis and biological activity of the potato cyst nematode hatching stimulant, solanoeclepin A, in the root exudate of Solanum spp.

MAIN CONCLUSION: Solanoeclepin A is a hatching stimulant for potato cyst nematode in very low (pM) concentrations. We report a highly sensitive method for the analysis of SolA in plant root exudates using UHPLC-MS/MS and show that there is considerable natural variation in SolA production in Solanum spp. corresponding with their hatching inducing activity. Potato cyst nematode (PCN) is a plant root sedentary endoparasite, specialized in the infection of solanaceous species such as potato (Solanum tuberosum) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Earlier reports (Mulder et al. in Hatching agent for the potato cyst nematode, Patent application No. PCT/NL92/00126, 1996; Schenk et al. in Croat Chem Acta 72:593-606, 1999) showed that solanoeclepin A (SolA), a triterpenoid metabolite that was isolated from the root exudate of potato, induces the hatching of PCN. Its low concentration in potato root exudate has hindered progress in fully understanding its hatching inducing activity and exploitation in the control of PCN. To further investigate the role of SolA in hatching of PCN, the establishment of a highly sensitive analytical method is a prerequisite. Here we present the efficient single-step extraction and UHPLC-MS/MS based analysis for rapid determination of SolA in sub-nanomolar concentrations in tomato root exudate. This method was used to analyze SolA production in different tomato cultivars and related solanaceous species, including the trap crop Solanum sisymbriifolium. Hatching assays with PCN, Globodera pallida, with root exudates of tomato genotypes revealed a significant positive correlation between SolA concentration and hatching activity. Our results demonstrate that there is natural variation in SolA production within solanaceous species and that this has an effect on PCN hatching. The analytical method we have developed can potentially be used to support breeding for crop genotypes that induce less hatching and may therefore display reduced infection by PCN.

A Combination of Metabolomics and Machine Learning Results in the Identification of a New Cyst Nematode Hatching Factor.

Potato Cyst Nematodes (PCNs) are an economically important pest for potato growers. A crucial event in the life cycle of the nematode is hatching, after which the juvenile will move toward the host root and infect it. The hatching of PCNs is induced by known and unknown compounds in the root exudates of host plant species, called hatching factors (HFs, induce hatching independently), such as solanoeclepin A (solA), or hatching stimulants (HSs, enhance hatching activity of HFs). Unraveling the identity of unknown HSs and HFs and their natural variation is important for the selection of cultivars that produce low amounts of HFs and HSs, thus contributing to more sustainable agriculture. In this study, we used a new approach aimed at the identification of new HFs and HSs for PCNs in potato. Hereto, root exudates of a series of different potato cultivars were analyzed for their PCN hatch-inducing activity and their solA content. The exudates were also analyzed using untargeted metabolomics, and subsequently the data were integrated using machine learning, specifically random forest feature selection, and Pearson's correlation testing. As expected, solA highly correlates with hatching. Furthermore, this resulted in the discovery of a number of metabolite features present in the root exudate that correlate with hatching and solA content, and one of these is a compound of m/z 526.18 that predicts hatching even better than solA with both data methods. This compound's involvement in hatch stimulation was confirmed by the fractionation of three representative root exudates and hatching assays with the resulting fractions. Moreover, the compound shares mass fragmentation similarity with solA, and we therefore assume it has a similar structure. With this work, we show that potato likely produces a solA analogue, and we contribute to unraveling the hatch-inducing cocktail exuded by plant roots.

On the role of dauer in the adaptation of nematodes to a parasitic lifestyle.

Nematodes are presumably the most abundant Metazoa on Earth, and can even be found in some of the most hostile environments of our planet. Various types of hypobiosis evolved to adapt their life cycles to such harsh environmental conditions. The five most distal major clades of the phylum Nematoda (Clades 8-12), formerly referred to as the Secernentea, contain many economically relevant parasitic nematodes. In this group, a special type of hypobiosis, dauer, has evolved. The dauer signalling pathway, which culminates in the biosynthesis of dafachronic acid (DA), is intensively studied in the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, and it has been hypothesized that the dauer stage may have been a prerequisite for the evolution of a wide range of parasitic lifestyles among other nematode species. Biosynthesis of DA is not specific for hypobiosis, but if it results in exit of the hypobiotic state, it is one of the main criteria to define certain behaviour as dauer. Within Clades 9 and 10, the involvement of DA has been validated experimentally, and dauer is therefore generally accepted to occur in those clades. However, for other clades, such as Clade 12, this has hardly been explored. In this review, we provide clarity on the nomenclature associated with hypobiosis and dauer across different nematological subfields. We discuss evidence for dauer-like stages in Clades 8 to 12 and support this with a meta-analysis of available genomic data. Furthermore, we discuss indications for a simplified dauer signalling pathway in parasitic nematodes. Finally, we zoom in on the host cues that induce exit from the hypobiotic stage and introduce two hypotheses on how these signals might feed into the dauer signalling pathway for plant-parasitic nematodes. With this work, we contribute to the deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying hypobiosis in parasitic nematodes. Based on this, novel strategies for the control of parasitic nematodes can be developed.