Interplay between genetic risk and the parent environment in adolescence and substance use in young adulthood: A TRAILS study.

Many adolescents start using tobacco, alcohol, and cannabis. Genetic vulnerability, parent characteristics in young adolescence, and interaction (GxE) and correlation (rGE) between these factors could contribute to the development of substance use. Using prospective data from the TRacking Adolescent Individuals' Lives Survey (TRAILS; N = 1,645), we model latent parent characteristics in young adolescence to predict young adult substance use. Polygenic scores (PGS) are created based on genome-wide association studies (GWAS) for smoking, alcohol use, and cannabis use. Using structural equation modeling we model the direct, GxE, and rGE effects of parent factors and PGS on young adult smoking, alcohol use, and cannabis initiation. The PGS, parental involvement, parental substance use, and parent-child relationship quality predicted smoking. There was GxE such that the PGS amplified the effect of parental substance use on smoking. There was rGE between all parent factors and the smoking PGS. Alcohol use was not predicted by genetic or parent factors, nor by interplay. Cannabis initiation was predicted by the PGS and parental substance use, but there was no GxE or rGE. Genetic risk and parent factors are important predictors of substance use and show GxE and rGE in smoking. These findings can act as a starting point for identifying people at risk.

Educational level, attention problems, and externalizing behaviour in adolescence and early adulthood: the role of social causation and health-related selection-the TRAILS study.

Social causation and health-related selection may contribute to educational differences in adolescents' attention problems and externalizing behaviour. The social causation hypothesis posits that the social environment influences adolescents' mental health. Conversely, the health-related selection hypothesis proposes that poor mental health predicts lower educational attainment. From past studies it is unclear which of these mechanisms predominates, as attention problems and externalizing behaviour have the potential to interfere with educational attainment, but may also be affected by differences in the educational context. Furthermore, educational gradients in mental health may reflect the impact of 'third variables' already present in childhood, such as parental socioeconomic status (SES), and IQ. We investigated both hypotheses in relation to educational differences in externalizing behaviour and attention problems throughout adolescence and young adulthood. We used data from a Dutch cohort (TRAILS Study; n = 2229), including five measurements of educational level, externalizing behaviour, and attention problems from around age 14-26 years. First, we evaluated the directionality in longitudinal associations between education, externalizing behaviour, and attention problems with and without adjusting for individual differences using fixed effects. Second, we assessed the role of IQ and parental SES in relation to attention problems, externalizing behaviour, and educational level. Attention problems predicted decreases in education throughout all of adolescence and young adulthood. Differences in parental SES contributed to increases in externalizing behaviour amongst the lower educational tracks in mid-adolescence. Childhood IQ and parental SES strongly predicted education around age 14. Parental SES, but not IQ, also predicted early adolescent attention problems and externalizing behaviour. Our results provide support for the health-related selection hypothesis in relation to attention problems and educational attainment. Further, our results highlight the role of social causation from parental SES in determining adolescent educational level, attention problems, and externalizing behaviour.

Decline in positive future orientations among adolescents during covid-19: The role of socioeconomic status, parental support, and sense of control.

INTRODUCTION: Before coronavirus disease (covid-19), adolescents from a lower socioeconomic status (SES) background tend to have less positive future orientations, receive less parental support, and have a weaker sense of control than adolescents from a higher SES background. The covid-19 pandemic has potentially increased the socioeconomic gaps in positive future orientations, parental support, and sense of control among adolescents who are currently in vocational education. As societies are aiming to return back to precovid norms, certain groups of adolescents might require more attention for ensuring a stable future than others. METHODS: Two-wave questionnaire data of 689 Dutch adolescents (Mage = 17.8; 56% female) from the Youth Got Talent project was analyzed. Latent Change Score models are a relatively novel approach that allows two-wave data to estimate associations between precovid predictor variables and changes in outcome variables from before to during covid-19 (e.g., SES, positive future orientations, parental support, and sense of control). Analyses were preregistered. RESULTS: The precovid socioeconomic differences in adolescent's positive future orientations and sense of control remained stable during covid-19, whereas the socioeconomic difference in parental support decreased during covid-19. A decline in parental support, an increase in sense of control, and more covid-19 hardships were associated with an increase in future orientations. CONCLUSION: The covid-19 situation has not substantially increased socioeconomic differences in positive future orientations and sense of control, but did decrease socioeconomic differences in parental support among adolescents. Short-term policies should aim to facilitate parental support and positive future orientations to all adolescents who experienced a decline, while also long-term focusing on the more consistent socioeconomic difference in sense of control among adolescents.

Multiple health risk behaviors and mental health from a life course perspective: The Dutch TRAILS study.

We examined trajectories of multiple health risk behavior (MHRB) patterns throughout adolescence, and changes in mental health from childhood to young adulthood. Further, we assessed how continuity or onset of MHRBs overall were associated with subsequent changes in mental health, and whether this varied by type of MHRBs. We used six waves of the prospective Dutch TRAILS study (2001-2016; n = 2229), covering ages 11 until 23. We measured MHRBs (substance use: alcohol misuse, cannabis use, smoking; and obesity-related: overweight, physical inactivity, irregular breakfast intake) at three time points during adolescence. We assessed mental health as Youth/Adult Self-report total problems at ages 11 and 23. Latent class growth analyses and ANOVA were used to examine longitudinal trajectories and associations. We identified six developmental trajectories for the total of MHRBs and mental health. Trajectories varied regarding likelihood of MHRBs throughout adolescence, mental health at baseline, and changes in mental health problems in young adulthood. We found no associations for the continuity of overall MHRBs throughout adolescence, and neither for early, mid- or late onset, with changes in mental health problems in young adulthood. However, continuity of MHRBs in the obesity-related subgroup was significantly associated with an increase in mental health problems. Adolescents with the same MHRB patterns may, when reaching adulthood, have different levels of mental health problems, with mental health at age 11 being an important predictor. Further, involvement with obesity-related MHRBs continuously throughout adolescence is associated with increased mental health problems in young adulthood.

Time trends in schoolwork pressure among Dutch adolescents, 2001-2017: Gender and educational differences.

AIMS: This study investigated gender and educational differences in trends in schoolwork pressure between 2001 and 2017 in nationally representative samples of Dutch adolescents in secondary education. METHODS: Data from five surveys of the Dutch Health Behaviour in School-aged Children study were used. RESULTS: Across the surveys, an increase in perceived schoolwork pressure was observed. Girls and adolescents enrolled in the higher educational levels reported higher levels of perceived schoolwork pressure and the strongest increase in schoolwork pressure over time. Especially for girls, there was a stronger increase in schoolwork pressure for those enrolled in higher educational tracks. CONCLUSIONS: Increases in schoolwork pressure over time were stronger among Dutch girls and students in the higher educational levels. Over time, schoolwork pressure increased most among girls in the highest educational levels. Explanations and implications for these results are discussed.

Daily Identity Dynamics in Adolescence Shaping Identity in Emerging Adulthood: An 11-Year Longitudinal Study on Continuity in Development.

According to identity theory, short-term day-to-day identity exploration and commitment processes are the building blocks for long-term development of stable commitments in emerging adulthood. This key assumption was tested in a longitudinal study including 494 individuals (43% girls, Mage T1 = 13.31 years, range 11.01-14.86 years) who were followed from adolescence into emerging adulthood, covering ages 13 to 24 years. In the first five years, adolescents reported on their daily identity processes (i.e., commitment, reconsideration and in-depth exploration) across 75 assessment days. Subsequently, they reported on their identity across four (bi-) annual waves in emerging adulthood. Findings confirmed the existence of a dual-cycle process model of identity formation and identity maintenance that operated at the within-person level across days during adolescence. Moreover, individual differences in these short-term identity processes in adolescence predicted individual differences in identity development in emerging adulthood. Specifically, those adolescents with low daily commitment levels, and high levels of identity reconsideration were more likely to maintain weak identity commitments and high identity uncertainty in emerging adulthood. Also, those adolescents characterized by stronger daily changes in identity commitments and continuing day-to-day identity uncertainty maintained the highest identity uncertainty in emerging adulthood. These results support the view of continuity in identity development from short-term daily identity dynamics in adolescence to long-term identity development in emerging adulthood.

Classroom Popularity Hierarchy Predicts Prosocial and Aggressive Popularity Norms Across the School Year.

This study examined the coevolution of prosocial and aggressive popularity norms with popularity hierarchy (asymmetries in students' popularity). Cross-lagged-panel analyses were conducted on 2,843 secondary school students (Nclassrooms  = 120; Mage  = 13.18; 51.3% girls). Popularity hierarchy predicted relative change in popularity norms over time, but not vice versa. Specifically, classrooms with few highly popular and many unpopular students increased in aggressive popularity norms at the beginning of the school year and decreased in prosocial popularity norms at the end of the year. Also, strong within-classroom asymmetries in popularity predicted relatively higher aggressive popularity norms. These findings may indicate that hierarchical contexts elicit competition for popularity, with high aggression and low prosocial behavior being seen as valuable tools to achieve popularity.

Sequences of maladaptation: Preadolescent self-regulation, adolescent negative social interactions, and young adult psychopathology.

This study aims to test whether adolescent negative social interactions mediate the relation between early adolescent self-regulatory capacities and young adult psychopathology, using a fully prospective mediation model. Data were derived from the Tracking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey, a large population cohort of Dutch adolescents (n = 962). At age 11, three indicators of self-regulation were assessed: low frustration, high effortful control, and high response inhibition. Negative social interactions between ages 11 and 22 were captured twice using the Event History Calendar. Psychopathology (i.e., internalizing and externalizing problems) was assessed at ages 11 and 22. Findings indicate that adolescents' frustration and effortful control but not response inhibition assessed at age 11 are related to both internalizing and externalizing problems at age 22, after controlling for psychopathology at age 11, sex, and socioeconomic status. These associations were partly (about 22%) mediated by the negative social interactions adolescents experienced. Effect sizes were all modest. This study shows that self-regulation is related to subsequent psychopathology in part through its effect on negative social interactions, providing evidence for sequences of self-regulatory capacities, life experiences, and developmental outcomes.

Goal-Directed Correlates and Neurobiological Underpinnings of Adolescent Identity: A Multimethod Multisample Longitudinal Approach.

This multimethod multisample longitudinal study examined how neurological substrates associated with goal directedness and information seeking are related to adolescents' identity. Self-reported data on goal-directedness were collected across three biannual waves in Study 1. Identity was measured one wave later. Study 1 design and measurements were repeated in Study 2 and extended with structural brain data (nucleus accumbens [NAcc] and prefrontal cortex gray matter volume [PFC]), collected across three biannual waves. Study 1 included 497 adolescents (Mage T1  = 13.03 years) and Study 2 included 131 adolescents (Mage T1  = 14.69 years). Using latent growth curve models, goal directedness, NAcc, and PFC volume predicted a stronger identity one wave later. These findings provide crucial new insights in the underlying neurobiological architecture of identity.

Lay beliefs about emotional problems and attitudes toward mental health care among parents and adolescents: Exploring the impact of immigration.

OBJECTIVE: Individuals' lay beliefs about mental health problems and attitudes toward mental health care are thought to be influenced by the cultural background of these individuals. In the current study, we investigated differences between immigrant Dutch and native Dutch parents and adolescents in lay beliefs about emotional problems and attitudes toward mental health care. Additionally, among immigrant Dutch parents, we examined the associations between acculturation orientations and lay beliefs about emotional problems as well as attitudes toward mental health care. METHOD: In total, 349 pairs of parents and their adolescent children participated in our study (95 native Dutch, 85 Surinamese-Dutch, 87 Turkish-Dutch, 82 Moroccan-Dutch). A vignette was used to examine participants' lay beliefs. RESULTS: Immigrant Dutch and native Dutch parents differed in their lay beliefs and attitudes toward mental health care, whereas hardly any differences were revealed among their children. Turkish-Dutch and Moroccan-Dutch parents showed more passive and fewer active solutions to emotional problems compared to native Dutch parents. Additionally, Moroccan-Dutch and Surinamese-Dutch parents reported greater fear of mental health care compared to native Dutch parents. Furthermore, the results showed that immigrant Dutch parents who were more strongly oriented toward the Dutch culture reported less fear of mental health care. CONCLUSION: Our results showed clear differences in lay beliefs and attitudes toward mental health care between immigrant Dutch and native Dutch parents but not between their children. Substantial differences were also found between parents from different immigrant Dutch populations as well as within the population of immigrant Dutch parents. (PsycINFO Database Record

Longitudinal patterns and predictors of multiple health risk behaviors among adolescents: The TRAILS study.

BACKGROUND: Most studies on multiple health risk behaviors among adolescents have cross-sectionally studied a limited number of health behaviors or determinants. PURPOSE: To examine the prevalence, longitudinal patterns and predictors of individual and multiple health risk behaviors among adolescents. METHODS: Eight health risk behaviors (no regular consumption of fruit, vegetables or breakfast, overweight or obesity, physical inactivity, smoking, alcohol use and cannabis use) were assessed in a prospective population study (second and third wave). Participants were assessed in three waves between ages 10 and 17 (2001-2008; n=2230). Multiple linear regression was used to assess the influence of gender, self-control, parental health risk behaviors, parental monitoring and socioeconomic factors on the number of health risk behaviors adjusted for preceding multiple health risk behaviors (analysis: 2013-2014). RESULTS: Rates of >5 health risk behaviors were high: 3.6% at age 13.5 and 10.2% at age 16. Smoking at age 13.5 was frequently associated with health risk behaviors at age 16. No regular consumption of fruit, vegetables and breakfast, overweight or obesity, physical inactivity and smoking predicted the co-occurrence of health risk behaviors at follow-up. Significant predictors of the development of multiple health risk behaviors were adolescents' levels of self-control, socioeconomic status and maternal smoking. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple health risk behaviors are common among adolescents. Individual and social factors predict changes in multiple health risk behaviors, showing that prevention targeting multiple risk behaviors is needed. Special attention should be paid to adolescents with low self-control and families with low socioeconomic status or a mother who smokes.

Mental health of adolescents before and after the death of a parent or sibling.

The death of a parent or sibling (family bereavement) is associated with mental health problems in approximately, 25 % of the affected children. However, it is still unknown whether mental health problems of family-bereaved adolescents are predicted by pre-existing mental health problems, pre-loss family functioning, or multiple bereavements. In this study, a prospective longitudinal assessment of change in mental health following bereavement was done in a large representative sample from the 'Tracking Adolescents Individual Lives Survey' (TRAILS). This is a four-wave prospective cohort study of Dutch adolescents (n = 2230) of whom 131 (5.9 %) had experienced family bereavement at the last wave (T4). Family-bereaved adolescents reported more internalizing problems, within 2 years after family bereavement, compared to the non-bereaved peers, while taking into account the level of internalizing problems before the bereavement. A clinically relevant finding was that 22 % new cases were found in family-bereaved, in comparison to 5.5 % new cases in non-bereaved. Low SES predicted more internalizing problems in family-bereaved but not in non-bereaved adolescents. Family functioning, reported by the adolescent, did not predict mental health problems within 2 years. Multiple family bereavements predicted fewer externalizing problems. In conclusion, internalizing problems increase in adolescents after family bereavement in comparison to non-bereaved and these can be predicted by pre-loss factors. Awareness among professionals regarding the risks for aggravation of mental health problems after family loss is needed.

The Role of Self-Control and Early Adolescents' Friendships in the Development of Externalizing Behavior: The SNARE Study.

This social network study investigated the moderating role of self-control in the association between friendship and the development of externalizing behavior: Antisocial behavior, alcohol use, tobacco use. Previous studies have shown inconsistent findings, and did not control for possible friendship network or selection effects. We tested two complementary hypotheses: (1) That early-adolescents with low self-control develop externalizing behavior regardless of their friends' behavior, or (2) as a result of being influenced by their friends' externalizing behavior to a greater extent. Hypotheses were investigated using data from the SNARE (Social Network Analysis of Risk behavior in Early adolescence) study (N = 1144, 50 % boys, M age 12.7, SD = 0.47). We controlled for selection effects and the network structure, using a data-analysis package called SIENA. The main findings indicate that personal low self-control and friends' externalizing behaviors both predict early adolescents' increasing externalizing behaviors, but they do so independently. Therefore, interventions should focus on all early adolescents' with a lower self-control, rather than focus on those adolescents with a lower self-control who also have friends who engage in externalizing behavior.

Investigating the Joint Development of Approach Bias and Adolescent Alcohol Use.

BACKGROUND: We investigated the joint development between implicit approach bias and early adolescent alcohol use, and examined whether the link between approach bias and alcohol use was moderated by working memory (WM). METHODS: The current study used data from a 2-year, 4-wave online sample of 378 Dutch early adolescents (mean age 14.9 years, 64.8% female). First, using latent growth curve modeling, we examined trajectories of approach bias and alcohol use over time. Second, we examined relations between baseline approach bias and WM and the development of alcohol use. Third, we examined the joint development of approach bias and alcohol use. Fourth, we examined whether the nature of this joint development varied for different levels of WM. RESULTS: Unconditional growth curve model analyses indicated that the functional forms of alcohol use and cognitive bias were best captured by quadratic and linear trajectories, respectively. We found that cognitive bias decreased over time. We found no significant relations between baseline predictors and observed increases in alcohol use. We found relations between the intercepts, but not to growth factors, in the joint development of alcohol use and approach bias. WM was not found to moderate relations between growth in approach bias and alcohol use in this sample. CONCLUSIONS: While we observed evidence of association between approach bias and alcohol use at baseline, there was no evidence of relations between development trajectories of the two. These findings replicate prior research demonstrating a role of implicit approach bias in predicting early adolescent alcohol use but do not demonstrate, in a light drinking early adolescent sample, the importance of interrelations between changes in approach bias and alcohol use over time, or a moderating role of WM. It is important to consider the potential consequences of repeated online approach bias assessment (e.g., changes in stimulus valence) when interpreting these results.

Do child's psychosocial functioning, and parent and family characteristics predict early alcohol use? The TRAILS Study.

BACKGROUND: Given the negative consequences of early alcohol use for health and social functioning, it is essential to detect children at risk of early drinking. The aim of this study is to determine predictors of early alcohol use that can easily be detected in Preventive Child Healthcare (PCH). METHODS: We obtained data from the first two waves on 1261 Dutch adolescents who participated in TRAILS (TRacking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey) at ages 10-14 years and from the PCH records regarding ages 4-10 years. Early adolescence alcohol use (age 10-14 years) was defined as alcohol use at least once at ages 10-12 years (wave 1) and at least once in the previous 4 weeks at ages 12-14 years (wave 2). Predictors of early alcohol use concerned parent and teacher reports at wave 1 and PCH registrations, regarding the child's psychosocial functioning, and parental and socio-demographic characteristics. RESULTS: A total of 17.2% of the adolescents reported early alcohol use. Predictors of early alcohol use were teacher-reported aggressive behaviour [odds ratios (OR); 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.86; 1.11-3.11], being a boy (OR 1.80, 95%-CI 1.31-2.56), being a non-immigrant (OR 2.31, 95%CI 1.05-5.09), and low and middle educational level of the father (OR 1.71, 95%CI 1.12-2.62 and OR 1.77, 95%CI 1.16-2.70, respectively), mutually adjusted. CONCLUSION: A limited set of factors was predictive for early alcohol use. Use of this set may improve the detection of early adolescence alcohol use in PCH.

Cross-national evidence for the clustering and psychosocial correlates of adolescent risk behaviours in 27 countries.

BACKGROUND: According to Jessor's Problem Behaviour Theory (PBT) and Moffitt's theory of adolescence-limited antisocial behaviour, adolescent risk behaviours cluster and can be predicted by various psychosocial factors including parent, peer and school attachment. This study tested the potential influence of the sociocultural, or macro-level, environment on the clustering and correlates of adolescent risk behaviour across 27 European and North American countries. METHODS: Analyses were based on data from the 2009-10 Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study. Participants compromised 56,090 adolescents (M(age) = 15.5 years) who self-reported on substance use (tobacco, alcohol, cannabis) and early sexual activity as well as on psychosocial factors (parent, peer and school attachment). RESULTS: Multiple group confirmatory factor analyses (with country as grouping variable) showed that substance use and early sexual activity loaded on a single underlying factor across countries. In addition, multiple group path analyses (with country as grouping variable) showed that associations between this factor and parent, peer and school attachment were identical across countries. CONCLUSION: Cross-national consistencies exist in the clustering and psychosocial correlates of substance use and early sexual activity across western countries. While Jessor's PBT stresses the problematic aspects of adolescent risk behaviours, Moffitt emphasizes their normative character. Although the problematic nature of risk behaviours overall receives more attention in the literature, it is important to consider both perspectives to fully understand why they cluster and correlate with psychosocial factors. This is essential for the development and implementation of prevention programmes aimed at reducing adolescent risk behaviours across Europe and North America.

Mild psychotic experiences among ethnic minority and majority adolescents and the role of ethnic density.

PURPOSE: Despite evidence of the increased risk of psychotic disorders among ethnic minority adults, little is known about the effect of ethnic minority status to mild psychotic experiences among adolescents. This study investigated mild psychotic experiences in ethnic minority and majority adolescents in a Dutch representative general population sample, and tested the ethnic density effect in the classroom. METHODS: The CAPE was used to assess mild psychotic experiences among Dutch (n = 3,606) and non-Western ethnic minority pupils (n = 769). RESULTS: Ethnic minority adolescents showed higher levels of grandiosity and delusions than their ethnic majority peers, whereas no differences were found for hallucinations, paranormal beliefs and paranoia between both groups of adolescents. The ethnic density effect was partly confirmed for the ethnic majority: a decrease of ethnic majority pupils in class increased their feelings of paranoia. CONCLUSIONS: Because only some dimensions of mild psychotic experiences were affected by ethnic minority status or the interaction between ethnic minority status and ethnic class composition, our findings emphasize that mild psychotic experiences are multifactorial in origin, with different underlying processes.

Ten-year trends in adolescents' self-reported emotional and behavioral problems in the Netherlands.

Changes in social, cultural, economic, and governmental systems over time may affect adolescents' development. The present study examined 10-year trends in self-reported emotional and behavioral problems among 11- to 16-year-old adolescents in the Netherlands. In addition, gender (girls versus boys), ethnic (Dutch versus non western) and educational (vocational versus academic) differences in these trends were examined. By means of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, trends in emotional and behavioral problems were studied in adolescents belonging to one of five independent population representative samples (2003: n = 6,904; 2005: n = 5,183; 2007: n = 6,228; 2009: n = 5,559; 2013: n = 5,478). Structural equation models indicated rather stable levels of emotional and behavioral problems over time. Whereas some small changes were found between different time points, these changes did not represent consistent changes in problem levels. Similarly, gender, ethnic and educational differences in self-reported problems on each time point were highly comparable, indicating stable mental health inequalities between groups of adolescents over time. Future internationally comparative studies using multiple measurement moments are needed to monitor whether these persistent mental health inequalities hold over extended periods of time and in different countries.

A test of the vulnerability model: temperament and temperament change as predictors of future mental disorders - the TRAILS study.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to test the vulnerability model of the relationship between temperament and mental disorders using a large sample of adolescents from the TRacking Adolescents Individual Lives' Survey (TRAILS). The vulnerability model argues that particular temperaments can place individuals at risk for the development of mental health problems. Importantly, the model may imply that not only baseline temperament predicts mental health problems prospectively, but additionally, that changes in temperament predict corresponding changes in risk for mental health problems. METHODS: Data were used from 1195 TRAILS participants. Adolescent temperament was assessed both at age 11 and at age 16. Onset of mental disorders between age 16 and 19 was assessed at age 19, by means of the World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview (WHO CIDI). RESULTS: Results showed that temperament at age 11 predicted future mental disorders, thereby providing support for the vulnerability model. Moreover, temperament change predicted future mental disorders above and beyond the effect of basal temperament. For example, an increase in frustration increased the risk of mental disorders proportionally. CONCLUSION: This study confirms, and extends, the vulnerability model. Consequences of both temperament and temperament change were general (e.g., changes in frustration predicted both internalizing and externalizing disorders) as well as dimension specific (e.g., changes in fear predicted internalizing but not externalizing disorders). These findings confirm previous studies, which showed that mental disorders have both unique and shared underlying temperamental risk factors.

Working memory and alcohol use in at-risk adolescents: a 2-year follow-up.

BACKGROUND: Previous research has identified working memory (WM) as a possible risk factor for problem drinking in adolescence. At the same time, results suggest that WM functioning is negatively influenced by the use of alcohol. To get a better understanding of the nature of this relationship, the present study examined the prospective bidirectional association between alcohol use and WM in a sample of young adolescents at risk for problem drinking. METHODS: Adolescents were all 8th graders from 17 different Special Education Schools (for youth with externalizing behavior problems). At the beginning of the study, 374 adolescents participated (mean age of 13.6 years). Approximately every 6 months, adolescents completed a questionnaire to establish alcohol use and a Self-Ordered Pointing Task (SOPT) to assess WM. RESULTS: Cross-lagged analyses revealed that alcohol use at T1 negatively predicted WM functioning 6 months later (p < 0.001). WM functioning at T2 and at T3 predicted alcohol use 6 months later (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: WM functioning has been identified as both risk factor for and as function negatively influenced by alcohol use. Findings indicate that early alcohol use in at-risk adolescents negatively influences the development of subsequent WM functioning, which in turn constitutes as a risk factor for later alcohol use problems. Implications for early interventions are discussed.