First Report of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense Tropical Race 4 Associated with Panama Disease of Banana outside Southeast Asia.

Fusarium wilt or Panama disease of banana, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc), is among the most destructive plant diseases (3). Race 1 ravaged 'Gros Michel'-based export trades until the cultivar was replaced by resistant Cavendish cultivars. However, a new variant of Foc, tropical race 4 (TR4), was identified in Southeast Asia in 1992 and has spread throughout the region (3). Cavendish clones, which are most important in subsistence and export production, are among the wide range of cultivars that are affected, and there is a huge concern that TR4 will further disseminate in Africa since its presence was announced in November 2013 and move into Latin America, thereby threatening other vital banana-growing regions. In Jordan, Cavendish bananas are produced on 1,000 to 1,500 ha in the Jordan Valley (32°N, 35.5°E). In 2006, symptoms of Fusarium wilt were observed and sampled for the isolation of Foc. On half-strength PDA amended with 100-ppm streptomycin sulfate, pale salmon-colored colonies with floccose mycelia developed consistently from surface-disinfested xylem. Single microconidia from these colonies were transferred to half-strength PDA, and conidia and mycelia from these monospore colonies were stored at -80°C in 15% glycerol. On banana leaf agar (Co60-irradiated leaf tissue on water agar), isolates resembled F. oxysporum phenotypically by producing infrequent three- to five-celled macroconidia, copious, usually aseptate microconida on monophialides, and terminal and intercalary chlamydospores after 2 weeks (2). With nitrate-nonutilizing (nit) mutants and testers for different vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs), each of seven examined monospore isolates were placed in VCG 01213, which contains only strains of TR4 (3). Total DNA was extracted from six isolates and PCR analyses, which confirmed their identity as TR4 (1). Subsequently, one of the isolates (JV11) was analyzed for pathogenicity. Inoculum production and inoculation were according to (1) by dipping (30 min) root-wounded 10-week-old plants of the Cavendish cv. Grand Naine in 2 liters of spore suspension (1.0 × 106 spores/ml). Inoculated plants were then placed in sand in 3-liter pots under 28°C, 70% relative humidity, and a 16/8-h light/darkness photoperiod. Sets of three plants were each treated with either JV11 or two TR4 controls (isolate II-5 and a strain isolated from an affected Cavendish plant in Mindanao, Philippines, both of which were diagnosed as TR4 by PCR and pathogenicity analyses). Control sets were either treated with race 1 originating from Cruz das Almas, Bahia, Brazil (1), or water. After 2 weeks, plants inoculated with JV11 and TR4 controls produced typical symptoms of Fusarium wilt. After 4 weeks, tissue was collected from all plants and plated on Komada's medium. TR4 was directly confirmed by PCR (1), either directly from symptomatic plants (JV11 and TR4 controls), or from isolates that were recovered from these plants. Nothing was re-isolated from race 1 inoculated plants and water controls, which remained asymptomatic. This is the first report of TR4 affecting Cavendish outside Southeast Asia, is its northernmost outbreak, and represents a dangerous expansion of this destructive race. Currently, 80% of the Jordan Valley production area is affected by Fusarium wilt, and 20 to 80% of the plants are affected in different farms. References: (1) M. A. Dita et al. Plant Pathol. 59:348, 2010. (2) J. F. Leslie and B. A. Summerell. The Fusarium Lab Manual. Blackwell, Ames, 2006. (3) R. C. Ploetz. Phytopathology 96:653, 2006.

Population genetic analyses of Fusarium asiaticum populations from barley suggest a recent shift favoring 3ADON producers in southern China.

Fusarium asiaticum is the predominant causal agent of Fusarium head blight (FHB) in southern China. The genetic diversity was assessed by analyzing 448 single-spore F. asiaticum isolates from 18 sampling sites that were 10 to 2,000 km apart, using seven highly informative variable number of tandem repeat (VNTR) markers. This analysis showed a significant degree of population subdivision (P < 0.001) among populations from upper, middle, and lower valleys of the Yangtze River, with little gene flow (Nm = 1.210). We observed a strong association between this genetic population subdivision and the mycotoxin produced. Our results show that the dramatic cline in trichothecene chemotypes may be explained by a recent and significant invasion of 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3ADON) producers in FHB pathogen composition in the middle valley. Using Bayesian statistics, we found a biased gene flow from 3ADON to nivalenol (NIV) populations. In addition, we observed significant genetic differentiation and linkage disequilibrium between NIV- and 3ADON-producing isolates at the same sampling sites. The impact of the changed agronomy and trade of cereal commodities on the spread of the new Fusarium population and the consequent increase of FHB observed in southern China are discussed.

Quantitative detection of pear-pathogenic Stemphylium vesicarium in orchards.

ABSTRACT Isolates of Stemphylium vesicarium causing brown spot of pear can be distinguished from nonpathogenic isolates of S. vesicarium from pear or from other hosts on the basis of distinctive amplified fragment length polymorphism fingerprinting profiles. DNA fragments specific for isolates pathogenic to pear were identified and a quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was developed on the sequence from one of these specific DNA loci. This TaqMan PCR has a high sensitivity with a dynamic range for reliable quantification between 1 ng and 100 fg of DNA. The method detected pear-pathogenic isolates of S. vesicarium originating from four different European countries and various regions within those countries. No cross-reaction was found with either the nonpathogenic isolates of S. vesicarium tested or isolates belonging to other Stemphylium spp. or related fungi. The pathogen was detected on leaves with brown-spot symptoms originating from six different locations in The Netherlands, Italy, and Spain. Pear-pathogenic S. vesicarium populations were monitored on crop residues in two Dutch orchards between October 2007 and October 2008. Brown spot had been observed at both orchards at the end of the growing season of 2007. In one location, pear-pathogenic S. vesicarium was detected only sporadically on crop residues and no brown-spot symptoms were observed on fruit in 2008. At the other location, a pathogenic population was found on fallen pear leaves and on other crop residues but this population decreased during winter. From the beginning of the growing season in 2008 onward, the pathogen population could not be detected and the disease incidence was only 0.6%. The TaqMan PCR will allow more detailed studies on epidemiology of brown spot and on the effect of disease control measures.

Fusarium populations on Chinese barley show a dramatic gradient in mycotoxin profiles.

We report on a large gene bank of Fusarium isolates established by a broad survey conducted in 2005 in which infected barley ears were collected in 23 counties of seven provinces and two municipalities along the Yangtze River in China. In total, 1,894 single spore isolates were obtained. The isolates were characterized at the species level by a newly developed and robust set of diagnostic primers based on single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) among members of the F. graminearum clade. In addition, we determined their chemotype using previously described polymerase chain reaction (PCR) primers. The results showed that in all regions F. asiaticum was the predominant species causing Fusarium head blight (FHB) on barley in China (N = 1,706), while in the upper valleys of the Yangtze River also F. graminearum sensu stricto, F. meridionale, and F. proliferatum were found. Major differences in the chemotypes were found in the F. asiaticum populations, from very high to exclusive nivalenol (NIV) chemotypes in the mountainous upper valleys of the Yangtze River to predominantly deoxynivalenol (DON) chemotypes in the middle and lower valleys. In contrast to the F. asiaticum isolates from three counties in Sichuan province, which were largely NIV producers (278 of 291), F. graminearum isolates from these sampling sites were for the vast majority (27 of 28) DON producers, indicating that despite sharing the same habitat, these sympatric species apparently have unique mycotoxin chemotypes.

Population Dynamics of Fusarium spp. and Microdochium nivale in Crops and Crop Residues of Winter Wheat.

ABSTRACT Naturally occurring populations of Fusarium avenaceum, F. culmorum, F. graminearum, F. poae, and Microdochium nivale were studied in two field experiments from anthesis in June 2003 until harvest in crops of winter wheat, and subsequently during 10 months after harvest until June 2004 on their residues exposed on the soil surface under field conditions. The dynamics of the different pathogens were estimated by quantifying the amount of DNA present in wheat tissues using TaqMan-polymerase chain reaction. While colonization of grain by Fusarium spp. and M. nivale was low, high amounts of DNA of F. avenaceum, F. graminearum, and F. culmorum were found in ear residues, internodes, and nodes of the mature crop. Amounts of DNA of pathogens decreased significantly during the following 10 months in residues of internodes and nodes, but not in residues of stem bases. Knowledge on population dynamics of pathogens will help to develop preventive measures aimed at reduction of inoculum sources of head blight pathogens.

Avirulence in the wheat septoria tritici leaf blotch fungus Mycosphaerella graminicola is controlled by a single locus.

Segregation of avirulence in Mycosphaerella graminicola, a heterothallic ascomycete that causes wheat septoria tritici leaf blotch, was studied in F1, BC1, and F2 populations by inoculation assays on five wheat cultivars in the seedling stage and by amplified fragment length polymorphism and random amplified polymorphic DNA analyses. F1 was generated by crossing isolates IPO323 (avirulent) and IPO94269 (virulent). All F1, BC1, and F2 progeny isolates were virulent on the susceptible check cultivar Taichung 29 and were avirulent on the resistant check cultivar Kavkav-K4500. Avirulence segregation was observed in F1 and in several BC1 and F2 generations on the differential cultivars Shafir, Kavkaz, and Veranopolis at a 1:1 ratio. Avirulence for the three differential cultivars always cosegregated. We conclude that avirulence in isolate IPO323 is controlled by a single, seemingly complex locus.

DNA Fingerprint Probe from Mycosphaerella graminicola Identifies an Active Transposable Element.

ABSTRACT DNA fingerprinting has been used extensively to characterize populations of Mycosphaerella graminicola, the Septoria tritici blotch pathogen of wheat. The highly polymorphic DNA fingerprints of Mycosphaerella graminicola were assumed to reflect the action of transposable elements. However, there was no direct evidence to support that conclusion. To test the transposable element hypothesis, the DNA fingerprint probe pSTL70 was sequenced, along with three other clones from a subgenomic library that hybridized with pSTL70. Analysis of these sequences revealed that pSTL70 contains the 3' end of a reverse transcriptase sequence plus 29- and 79-bp direct repeats. These are characteristics of transposable elements identified in other organisms. Southern analyses indicated that either the direct-repeat or reverse-transcriptase sequences by themselves essentially duplicated the original DNA fingerprint pattern, but other portions of pSTL70 contained single-copy DNA. Analysis of 60 progeny from a sexual cross between two Dutch isolates of Mycosphaerella graminicola identified several new bands that were not present in the parents. Thus, the putative transposable element probably is active during meiosis. Tests of single-spore isolates revealed gains or losses of one or more DNA fingerprint bands in 4 out of 10 asexual lines derived from isolate IPO94269. Therefore, DNA fingerprint patterns produced by the putative transposable element were capable of changes during asexual reproduction of this isolate. Probe pSTL70 did not hybridize at high stringency to genomic DNAs from other fungi related to Septoria and Mycosphaerella. These results indicate that the DNA fingerprint probe pSTL70 most likely identifies a transposable element in Mycosphaerella graminicola that may have been acquired recently, and appears to be active during both sexual and asexual reproduction.

Molecular Relationships of Fungi Within the Fusarium redolens-F. hostae Clade.

ABSTRACT The evolutionary relationships of fungi in the Fusarium redolens-F. hostae clade were investigated by constructing nuclear and mitochondrial gene genealogies for 37 isolates representing the known genetic and pathogenic diversity of this lineage, together with 15 isolates from putative sister groups that include the Gibberella fujikuroi and F. oxysporum species complexes and related species. Included in the analyses were 29 isolates of F. redolens from Asparagus, Convallaria, Dianthus, Fritillaria, Hebe, Helleborus, Hordeum, Linum, Pisum, Pseudotsuga, and Zea spp., and from soil. Isolates of F. hostae analyzed included two reference isolates from Hosta spp. and six isolates from Hyacinthus spp. that originally were classified as F. oxysporum f. sp. hyacinthi. DNA sequences from a portion of the nuclear translation elongation factor 1alpha (EF-1alpha) gene and the mitochondrial small subunit (mtSSU) ribosomal RNA (rRNA) were analyzed individually and as a combined data set based on results of the nonparametric Wilcoxon signed ranks Templeton combinability test. Maximum parsimony analysis of the combined data set identified the F. redolens-F. hostae clade as a sister group to a phylogenetically diverse clade in which the G. fujikuroi species complex formed the most basal lineage. Also included in this latter clade were two unnamed Fusarium spp. that are morphologically similar to F. oxysporum and putative sister taxa comprising the F. oxysporum complex and a F. nisikadoi-F. miscanthi clade. Phylogenetic diversity in F. redolens was small; all isolates were represented by only three EF-1alpha and two mtSSU rDNA haplotypes. Both the isolates of F. redolens f. sp. asparagi and those of F. redolens f. sp. dianthi were nearly evenly distributed in the combined molecular phylogeny between the two major subclades within F. redolens.

Gene Genealogies and AFLP Analyses in the Fusarium oxysporum Complex Identify Monophyletic and Nonmonophyletic Formae Speciales Causing Wilt and Rot Disease.

ABSTRACT The monophyletic origin of host-specific taxa in the plant-pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum complex was tested by constructing nuclear and mitochondrial gene genealogies and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP)-based phylogenies for 89 strains representing the known genetic and pathogenic diversity in 8 formae speciales associated with wilt diseases and root and bulb rot. We included strains from clonal lineages of F. oxysporum f. spp. asparagi, dianthi, gladioli, lilii, lini, opuntiarum, spinaciae, and tulipae. Putatively nonpathogenic strains from carnation and lily were included and a reference strain from each of the three main clades identified previously in the F. oxysporum complex; sequences from related species were used as outgroups. DNA sequences from the nuclear translation elongation factor 1alpha and the mitochondrial small subunit (mtSSU) ribosomal RNA genes were combined for phylogenetic analysis. Strains in vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs) shared identical sequences and AFLP profiles, supporting the monophyly of the two single-VCG formae speciales, lilii and tulipae. Identical genotypes were also found for the three VCGs in F. oxysporum f. sp. spinaciae. In contrast, multiple evolutionary origins were apparent for F. oxysporum f. spp. asparagi, dianthi, gladioli, lini, and opuntiarum, although different VCGs within each of these formae speciales often clustered close together or shared identical EF-1alpha and mtSSU rDNA haplotypes. Kishino-Hasegawa analyses of constraints forcing the monophyly of these formae speciales supported the exclusive origin of F. oxysporum f. sp. opuntiarum but not the monophyly of F. oxysporum f. spp. asparagi, dianthi, gladioli, and lini. Most of the putatively nonpathogenic strains from carnation and lily, representing unique VCGs, were unrelated to F. oxysporum f. spp. dianthi and lilii, respectively. Putatively nonpathogenic or rot-inducing strains did not form exclusive groups within the molecular phylogeny. Parsimony analyses of AFLP fingerprint data supported the gene genealogy-based phylogram; however, AFLP-based phylogenies were considerably more homoplasious than the gene genealogies. The predictive value of the forma specialis naming system within the F. oxysporum complex is questioned.

Occurrence of Fusarium Head Blight species and Fusarium mycotoxins in winter wheat in the Netherlands in 2009.

Most recent information on the occurrence of Fusarium Head Blight species and related mycotoxins in wheat grown in the Netherlands dates from 2001. This aim of this study was to investigate the incidence and levels of Fusarium Head Blight species and Fusarium mycotoxins, as well as their possible relationships, in winter wheat cultivated in the Netherlands in 2009. Samples were collected from individual fields of 88 commercial wheat growers. Samples were collected at harvest from 86 fields, and 2 weeks before the expected harvest date from 21 fields. In all, 128 samples, the levels of each of seven Fusarium Head Blight species and of 12 related mycotoxins were quantified. The results showed that F. graminearum was the most frequently observed species at harvest, followed by F. avenaceum and M. nivale. In the pre-harvest samples, only F. graminearum and M. nivale were relevant. The highest incidence and concentrations of mycotoxins were found for deoxynivalenol, followed by zearalenone and beauvericin, both pre-harvest and at harvest. Other toxins frequently found--for the first time in the Netherlands--included T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, and moniliformin. The levels of deoxynivalenol were positively related to F. graminearum levels, as well as to zearalenone levels. Other relationships could not be established. The current approach taken in collecting wheat samples and quantifying the presence of Fusarium Head Blight species and related mycotoxins is an efficient method to obtain insight into the occurrence of these species and toxins in wheat grown under natural environmental conditions. It is recommended that this survey be repeated for several years to establish inter-annual variability in both species composition and mycotoxin occurrence.

Mating type loci inFusarium: structure and function.

Sex in fungi is regulated by highly dissimilar mating type loci named idiomorphs. The genus Fusarium harbours both sexual as well as esexual species and each appears to contain one or the other idiomorph. The structure of these loci is highly conserved, suggesting a cryptic sexual cycle in these socalled asexual species. Alternatively, idiomorphs could regulate additional hitherto unrecognized biological processes. Such processes could be elucidated by expression profiling using mutants disrupted in their mating type loci.

Advances in molecular diagnosis of toxigenic Fusarium species: a review.

The development of advanced molecular diagnosis for the critical toxigenic Fusarium species is considered in this review. The specific topics discussed are (1) isolation of mating type genes of Gibberella complex, (2) molecular detection of Fusarium-producing fumonisins, (3) molecular detection of Fusarium-producing trichothecenes and enniatins. Particular attention is given to the development of PCR assays for genes involved in the toxin biosynthesis that would permit the early detection of Fusarium species-producing toxins and potentially even reveal which particular toxin may be present within a food or feed product. Most of these data have been obtained within the 'De-Tox Fungi' project supported by the European Commission (QLK1-CT-1998-01380).

Binding of the CryIVD Toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis to Larval Dipteran Midgut Proteins.

Ligand-blotting experiments on dipteran brush border membrane vesicles (BBMVs) showed binding of CryIVD toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis to proteins of 148 kDa in Anopheles stephensi and of 78 kDa in Tipula oleracea, both species being susceptible to CryIVD. Binding of CryIVD with BBMVs of A. stephensi resulted in a stronger signal than with BBMVs of T. oleracea. Likewise, larvae of A. stephensi are 10,000-fold more susceptible to the CryIVD toxin than are larvae of T. oleracea. Binding was also found with six proteins ranging in size from 48 to 110 kDa in BBMVs from the lepidopteran species Manduca sexta, but CryIVD was not toxic for M. sexta larvae. No binding of trypsinated CryIVD to BBMV proteins was observed. With the lepidopteran-specific toxin CryIA(b), no binding to dipteran BBMVs was found. Binding of CryIA(b) to nine different BBMV proteins ranging in size from 71 to 240 kDa was observed in M. sexta. The major binding signal was observed with a protein of 240 kDa for CryIA(b).

Inactivation of haemolysin production in Escherichia coli by transposon insertion results in loss of virulence.

A haemolytic E. coli strain is nephropathogenic for mice. Mutagenesis by transposon insertion resulted in mutants with altered haemolytic activity. Reduction or elimination of the haemolytic activity is accompanied with loss of virulence. It is shown that this loss of virulence is due to altered haemolytic activity and not caused by the transposon insertion itself.

DNA methylation at a CCGG sequence in the large intron of the rabbit beta-globin gene: tissue-specific variations.

We have analysed DNA modification in a HapII site (CCGG) present in the major intron of the discontinuous rabbit beta-globin gene. In most somatic tissues, including erythroid and non-erythroid tissues, about 50% of the DNA is resistant to cleavage at this site by HapII, though 100% cleavage is found with the isoschizomer MspI. Since the former enzyme is unable to cleave CCGG sites if the internal C residue is 5-methyl C (and since methylation is the only form of CpG modification documented in animal DNA), while the latter enzyme cleaves DNA irrespective of methylation at this residue, we infer that 50% of the CCGG sites in the beta-globin gene intron are methylated in these tissues. The same site appears to be 100% methylated (judged by the same criterium) in sperm DNA and about 80% methylated in brain DNA. DNA from the rabbit SIRC cell line is entirely unmethylated at this site.

MspI, an isoschizomer of hpaII which cleaves both unmethylated and methylated hpaII sites.

The cleavage of DNA by restriction endonucleases HpaII and HapII is prevented by the presence of a 5-methyl group at the internal C residue of its recognition sequence CCGG. MspI, an isoschizomer of HpaII available from New England Biolabs, cleaves DNA irrespective of the presence of a methyl group at this position. This enzyme cleaves DNA from Haemophilus parainfluenzae and Haemophilus aphrophilus readily while HpaII and HapII cannot degrade these DNAs. Practically all HpaII sites in mammalian sperm DNA are also protected by methylation at the internal C position since HpaII and HapII barely cleave this DNA (average molecular weight 40 kb). MspI, however, cleaves the DNA to an average size of about 5 kb.

In vivo function of hemolysin in the nephropathogenicity of Escherichia coli.

The role of hemolysin in the nephropathogenicity of Escherichia coli was studied in a hematogenous pyelonephritis model in mice. The nephropathogenicity of a nonhemolytic, avirulent E. coli strain was increased by simultaneous injection with its hemolytic, nephropathogenic parent. This helper mechanism could be attributed to hemolysin, since the simultaneous injection of partially purified hemolysin gave a similar enhancement of nephropathogenicity. Intraperitoneal injection of hemoglobin or iron sulfate before intravenous challenge with this avirulent strain also led to increased virulence. The nephropathogenicity-enhancing effect of hemolysin is therefore supposed to depend on increasing the level of available iron in the host. Under conditions of plentiful iron, hemolysin production was repressed, as shown by in vitro growth experiments in the presence of exogenous iron. These results suggest that the production of hemolysin is regulated by feedback inhibition.

Physical mapping of hemolysin plasmid pCW2, which codes for virulence of a nephropathogenic Escherichia coli strain.

The hemolysin plasmid pCW2, which enhances the virulence of Escherichia coli, has been mapped. Comparison of the region coding for hemolysin with other hemolysin determinants reveals differences that could explain differences in the ability to confer virulence.

Hemolysin plasmid coding for the virulence of a nephropathogenic Escherichia coli strain.

The nephropathogenic Escherichia coli strain P673 was shown to harbor two plasmids with molecular sizes of 70 and 41 megadaltons, respectively. The 70-megadalton plasmid, pCW1, coded for tetracycline resistance, whereas hemolysin production was coded by the 41-megadalton plasmid, pCW2. Plasmid pCW1 proved to be self-transmissible, in contrast to pCW2. Transfer of the hemolysin character was associated with the appearance of a 110-megadalton plasmid, pCW3. The incompatibility of pCW3 with both native plasmids and restriction enzyme analysis led to the conclusion that pCW3 is a cointegrate of pCW1 and pCW2, pCW2, carrying the hemolytic determinant, is involved in the nephropathogenic character of strain P673, because (i) elimination of pCW2 from P673 was associated with a loss of virulence and (ii) the nephropathogenicity of the avirulent mutant could be restored by reintroduction of pCW2 DNA as part of a cointegrate structure.