Endogenous TCR promotes in vivo persistence of CD19-CAR-T cells compared to a CRISPR/Cas9-mediated TCR knockout CAR.

Anti-CD19 chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells showed significant antileukemic activity in B-precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Allogeneic, HLA-mismatched off-the-shelf third-party donors may offer ideal fitness of the effector cells, but carry the risk of graft-versus-host disease. Knockout (KO) of the endogenous T-cell receptor (TCR) in CD19-CAR-T cells may be a promising solution. Here, we induced a CRISPR/Cas9-mediated KO of the TCRß chain in combination with a second-generation retroviral CAR transduction including a 4-1BB costimulatory domain in primary T cells. This tandem engineering led to a highly functional population of TCR-KO-CAR-T cells with strong activation (CD25, interferon γ), proliferation, and specific killing upon CD19 target recognition. TCR-KO-CAR-T cells had a balanced phenotype of central memory and effector memory T cells. KO of the endogenous TCR in T cells strongly ablated alloreactivity in comparison with TCR-expressing T cells. In a patient-derived xenograft model of childhood ALL, TCR-KO-CAR-T cells clearly controlled CD19+ leukemia burden and improved survival in vivo. However, coexpression of endogenous TCR plus CAR led to superior persistence of T cells and significantly prolonged leukemia control in vivo, confirmed by a second in vivo model using the leukemia cell line NALM6. These results point toward an essential role of the endogenous TCR for longevity of the response at the price of alloreactivity. In conclusion, anti-CD19 CAR T cells with a CRISPR/Cas9-mediated TCR-KO are promising candidates for nonmatched third-party adoptive T-cell transfer with high antileukemic functionality in the absence of alloreactivity, but long-term persistence in vivo is better in the presence of the endogenous TCR.

Low mutational load in pediatric medulloblastoma still translates into neoantigens as targets for specific T-cell immunotherapy.

BACKGROUND: Medulloblastoma is the most common malignant brain tumor in childhood and adolescence. Although some patients present with distinct genetic alterations, such as mutated TP53 or MYC amplification, pediatric medulloblastoma is a tumor entity with minimal mutational load and low immunogenicity. METHODS: We identified tumor-specific mutations using next-generation sequencing of medulloblastoma DNA and RNA derived from primary tumor samples from pediatric patients. Tumor-specific mutations were confirmed using deep sequencing and in silico analyses predicted high binding affinity of the neoantigen-derived peptides to the patients' human leukocyte antigen molecules. Tumor-specific peptides were synthesized and used to induce a de novo T-cell response characterized by interferon gamma and tumor necrosis factor alpha release of CD8+ cytotoxic T cells in vitro. RESULTS: Despite low mutational tumor burden, at least two immunogenic tumor-specific peptides were identified in each patient. T cells showed a balanced CD4/CD8 ratio and mostly effector memory phenotype. Induction of a CD8-specific T-cell response was achieved for the neoepitopes derived from Histidine Ammonia-Lyase (HAL), Neuraminidase 2 (NEU2), Proprotein Convertase Subtilisin (PCSK9), Programmed Cell Death 10 (PDCD10), Supervillin (SVIL) and tRNA Splicing Endonuclease Subunit 54 (TSEN54) variants. CONCLUSION: Detection of patient-specific, tumor-derived neoantigens confirms that even in tumors with low mutational load a molecular design of targets for specific T-cell immunotherapy is possible. The identified neoantigens may guide future approaches of adoptive T-cell transfer, transgenic T-cell receptor transfer or tumor vaccination.

'Sterility Testing of Blood Components and Advanced Therapy Medicinal Products' (Munich, April 29, 2010) Organized by the DGTI Section 'Safety in Hemotherapy' - Meeting Report.

Neither screening method completely detects all clinically relevant bacterial contaminations. The effect of sampling time and volume as well as standardization of the assay applied has also to be taken into account. Therefore, minimizing the risk of contamination during manufacture by measures such as donor selection, skin disinfection, division, and processing within closed systems remains crucial. In this context new concepts in sterility testing, especially with instable advanced therapy medicinal products (ATMPs), are needed as well as reassessment of pathogen inactivation techniques. At present hemovigilance data indicate that shortening the shelf life of platelet concentrates as introduced in Germany 2008 reduced the risk of transfusion-transmitted bacterial infections to the same extent as bacterial screening as done in Canada or the Netherlands. The evolving methodological progress, e.g. by standardizing culture methods or enhancing detection systems, requires careful follow-up in parallel to hemovigilance data in order to ensure optimal bacterial safety in hemotherapy.

Toll-like receptor 7/8-matured RNA-transduced dendritic cells as post-remission therapy in acute myeloid leukaemia: results of a phase I trial.

OBJECTIVES: Innovative post-remission therapies are needed to eliminate residual AML cells. DC vaccination is a promising strategy to induce anti-leukaemic immune responses. METHODS: We conducted a first-in-human phase I study using TLR7/8-matured DCs transfected with RNA encoding the two AML-associated antigens WT1 and PRAME as well as CMVpp65. AML patients in CR at high risk of relapse were vaccinated 10× over 26 weeks. RESULTS: Despite heavy pretreatment, DCs of sufficient number and quality were generated from a single leukapheresis in 11/12 cases, and 10 patients were vaccinated. Administration was safe and resulted in local inflammatory responses with dense T-cell infiltration. In peripheral blood, increased antigen-specific CD8+ T cells were seen for WT1 (2/10), PRAME (4/10) and CMVpp65 (9/10). For CMVpp65, increased CD4+ T cells were detected in 4/7 patients, and an antibody response was induced in 3/7 initially seronegative patients. Median OS was not reached after 1057 days; median RFS was 1084 days. A positive correlation was observed between clinical benefit and younger age as well as mounting of antigen-specific immune responses. CONCLUSIONS: Administration of TLR7/8-matured DCs to AML patients in CR at high risk of relapse was feasible and safe and resulted in induction of antigen-specific immune responses. Clinical benefit appeared to occur more likely in patients <65 and in patients mounting an immune response. Our observations need to be validated in a larger patient cohort. We hypothesise that TLR7/8 DC vaccination strategies should be combined with hypomethylating agents or checkpoint inhibition to augment immune responses. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The study was registered at https://clinicaltrials.gov on 17 October 2012 (NCT01734304) and at https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu (EudraCT-Number 2010-022446-24) on 10 October 2013.

Anti-tumor activity of patient-derived NK cells after cell-based immunotherapy--a case report.

BACKGROUND: Membrane-bound heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) serves as a tumor-specific recognition structure for Hsp70-peptide (TKD) plus IL-2 activated NK cells. A phase I clinical trial has shown that repeated re-infusions of ex vivo TKD/IL-2-activated, autologous leukapheresis product is safe. This study investigated the maintenance of the cytolytic activity of NK cells against K562 cells and autologous tumor after 6 plus 3 infusions of TKD/IL-2-activated effector cells. METHODS: A stable tumor cell line was generated from the resected anastomotic relapse of a patient with colon carcinoma (pT3, N2, M0, G2). Two months after surgery, the patient received the first monthly i.v. infusion of his ex vivo TKD/IL-2-activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMNC). After 6 infusions and a pause of 3 months, the patient received another 3 cell infusions. The phenotypic characteristics and activation status of tumor and effector cells were determined immediately before and at times after each infusion. RESULTS: The NK cell ligands Hsp70, MICA/B, and ULBP-1,2,3 were expressed on the patient's anastomotic relapse. An increased density of activatory NK cell receptors following ex vivo stimulation correlated with an enhanced anti-tumoricidal activity. After 4 re-infusion cycles, the intrinsic cytolytic activity of non-stimulated PBMNC was significantly elevated and this heightened responsiveness persisted for up to 3 months after the last infusion. Another 2 re-stimulations with TKD/IL-2 restored the cytolytic activity after the therapeutic pause. CONCLUSION: In a patient with colon carcinoma, repeated infusions of ex vivo TKD/IL-2-activated PBMNC initiate an intrinsic NK cell-mediated cytolytic activity against autologous tumor cells.

Adjuvant therapeutic vaccination in patients with non-small cell lung cancer made lymphopenic and reconstituted with autologous PBMC: first clinical experience and evidence of an immune response.

BACKGROUND: Given the considerable toxicity and modest benefit of adjuvant chemotherapy for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), there is clearly a need for new treatment modalities in the adjuvant setting. Active specific immunotherapy may represent such an option. However, clinical responses have been rare so far. Manipulating the host by inducing lymphopenia before vaccination resulted in a magnification of the immune response in the preclinical setting. To evaluate feasibility and safety of an irradiated, autologous tumor cell vaccine given following induction of lymphopenia by chemotherapy and reinfusion of autologous peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), we are currently conducting a pilot-phase I clinical trial in patients with NSCLC following surgical resection. This paper reports on the first clinical experience and evidence of an immune response in patients suffering from NSCLC. METHODS: NSCLC patients stages I-IIIA are recruited. Vaccines are generated from their resected lung specimens. Patients undergo leukapheresis to harvest their PBMC prior to or following the surgical procedure. Furthermore, patients receive preparative chemotherapy (cyclophosphamide 350 mg/m2 and fludarabine 20 mg/m2 on 3 consecutive days) for induction of lymphopenia followed by reconstitution with their autologous PBMC. Vaccines are administered intradermally on day 1 following reconstitution and every two weeks for a total of up to five vaccinations. Granulocyte-macrophage-colony-stimulating-factor (GM-CSF) is given continuously (at a rate of 50 microg/24 h) at the site of vaccination via minipump for six consecutive days after each vaccination. RESULTS: To date, vaccines were successfully manufactured for 4 of 4 patients. The most common toxicities were local injection-site reactions and mild constitutional symptoms. Immune responses to chemotherapy, reconstitution and vaccination are measured by vaccine site and delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) skin reactions. One patient developed positive DTH skin tests so far. Immunohistochemical assessment of punch biopsies taken at the local vaccine site reaction revealed a dense lymphocyte infiltrate. Further immunohistochemical differentiation showed that CD1a+ cells had been attracted to the vaccine site as well as predominantly CD4+ lymphocytes. The 3-day combination chemotherapy consisting of cyclophosphamide and fludarabine induced a profound lymphopenia in all patients. Sequential FACS analysis revealed that different T cell subsets (CD4, CD8, CD4CD25) as well as granulocytes, B cells and NK cells were significantly reduced. Here, we report on clinical safety and feasibility of this vaccination approach during lymphoid recovery and demonstrate a patient example. CONCLUSION: Thus far, all vaccines were well tolerated. The overall trial design seems safe and feasible. Vaccine site reactions associated with infusion of GM-CSF via mini-pump are consistent with the postulated mechanism of action. More detailed immune-monitoring is required to evaluate a potential systemic immune response. Further studies to exploit homeostasis-driven T cell proliferation for the induction of a specific anti-tumor immune response in this clinical setting are warranted.

Fate of intravenously injected mesenchymal stem cells and significance for clinical application.

Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have initially been characterized as a fibroblastlike cell population that can be expanded readily in vitro, and is able to support hematopoiesis in vitro and in vivo. By serendipity it was discovered that MSCs can also be administered into the bloodstream. This mode of application formed a major breakthrough in the clinical use of MSCs, because MSC transplantation was found to cure severe immune hyperactivation states such as graft-versus-host disease after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation, or bacterial sepsis. However, MSCs were found difficult to trace and consensus to date is lacking in the scientific community as to where transplanted MSCs end up in the body and which major principles are responsible for the therapeutic effects of MSCs. This chapter gives an overview of the current knowledge on interactions of freshly transplanted MSCs with the cells in the blood stream and the vessel wall, with major organs such as lung, liver, gut, and spleen, and discusses the limitations of the methodologies used to trace transplanted MSCs. The findings will be put into perspective on how therapeutically applied, culture-expanded MSCs may exert beneficial effects.