Qualitative Classification of Lubricating Oil Wear Particle Morphology Based on Coaxial Capacitive Sensing Network and SVM.

In addition to lubricating and cooling, aero-engine lubricating oil is also a transport medium for wear particles generated by mechanical wear. Online identification of the number and shape of wear particles is an important means to directly determine the wear state of rotating parts, but most of the existing research focuses on the identification and counting of wear particles. In this paper, a qualitative classification method of wear particle morphology based on support vector machine is proposed by using the wear particle capacitance signal obtained by the coaxial capacitive sensing network. Firstly, the coaxial capacitive sensing network simulation model is used to obtain the capacitance signals of different shapes of wear particles entering the detection space of different electrode plates. In addition, a variety of intelligent optimization algorithms are used to optimize the relevant parameters of the support vector machine (SVM) model in order to improve the classification accuracy. By using the processed data and optimized parameters, a SVM-based qualitative classification model for wear particles is established. Finally, the validity of the classification model is verified by real wear particles of different sizes. The simulation and experimental results show that the qualitative classification of different wear particle morphologies can be achieved by using the coaxial capacitive sensing network signal and the SVM model.

A New In Situ Coaxial Capacitive Sensor Network for Debris Monitoring of Lubricating Oil.

Wear debris monitoring of lubricant oil is an important method to determine the health and failure mode of key components such as bearings and gears in rotatory machines. The permittivity of lubricant oil can be changed when the wear debris enters the oil. Capacitive sensing methods showed potential in monitoring debris in lubricant due to the simple structure and good response. In order to improve the detection sensitivity and reliability, this study proposes a new coaxial capacitive sensor network featured with parallel curved electrodes and non-parallel plane electrodes. As a kind of through-flow sensor, the proposed capacitive sensor network can be in situ integrated into the oil pipeline. The theoretical models of sensing mechanisms were established to figure out the relationship between the two types of capacitive sensors in the sensor network. The intensity distributions of the electric field in the coaxial capacitive sensor network are simulated to verify the theoretical analysis, and the effects of different debris sizes and debris numbers on the capacitance values were also simulated. Finally, the theoretical model and simulation results were experimentally validated to verify the feasibility of the proposed sensor network.

N,N-Dimethylformamide as Carbon Synthons for the Synthesis of N-Heterocycles: Pyrrolo/Indolo[1,2-a]quinoxalines and Quinazolin-4-ones.

N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) as synthetic precursors contributing especially the methyl, acyl, and amino groups has played a significant role in heterocycle syntheses and functionalization. In this protocol, a wide range of pyrrolo/indolo[1,2-a]quinoxalines and quinazolin-4-ones were obtained in moderate to good yields by using elemental iodine without any metal or peroxides. We considered that N-methyl and N-acyl of DMF participate and complete the reaction separately through different mechanisms, which displayed potential still to be explored of DMF.

Real-Time Life-Cycle Monitoring of Composite Structures Using Piezoelectric-Fiber Hybrid Sensor Network.

In this paper, an in situ piezoelectric-fiber hybrid sensor network was developed to monitor the life-cycle of carbon fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRPs), from the manufacturing phase to the life in service. The piezoelectric lead-zirconate titanate (PZT) sensors were inserted inside the composite structures during the manufacturing process to monitor important curing parameters, including the storage modulus of resin and the progress of the reaction (POR). The strain that is related to the storage modulus and the state of resin was measured by embedded fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors, and the gelation moment identified by the FBG sensors was very close to those determined by dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and POR. After curing, experiments were conducted on the fabricated CFRP specimen to investigate the damage identification capability of the embedded piezoelectric sensor network. Furthermore, a modified probability diagnostic imaging (PDI) algorithm with a dynamically adaptive shape factor and fusion frequency was proposed to indicate the damage location in the tested sample and to greatly improve the position precision. The experimental results demonstrated that the average relative distance error (RDE) of the modified PDI method was 68.48% and 46.97% lower than those of the conventional PDI method and the PDI method, respectively, with an averaged shape factor and fusion frequency, indicating the effectiveness and applicability of the proposed damage imaging method. It is obvious that the whole life-cycle of CFRPs can be effectively monitored by the piezoelectric-fiber hybrid sensor network.

An Eddy Current-Based Structural Health Monitoring Technique for Tracking Bolt Cracking.

Bolted joints are the primary structures for the load transfer of large-scale structures. It is vital to monitor the process of bolt cracking for enduring structural safety. In this paper, a structural health monitoring technique based on the embedding eddy current sensing film has been proposed to quantify the crack parameters of bolt cracking. Two configurations of the sensing film containing one-dimensional circumferential coil array and two-dimensional coil array are designed and verified to have the ability to identify three crack parameters: the crack angle, the crack depth, and the crack location in the axial direction of the bolt. The finite element method has been employed not only to verify the capacity of the sensing film, but also to investigate the interaction between the crack and the eddy current/magnetic field. It has been demonstrated that as the crack propagates, the variations of the induced voltage of the sensing coils are influenced by both eddy current effect and magnetic flux leakage, which play different roles in the different periods of the crack propagation. Experiments have been performed to verify the effectiveness and feasibility of the sensing film to quantify three crack parameters in the process of the bolt cracking.

The Design and Verification of an Active SAMSR Ultrasonic Guided Wave Monitoring System with Ultra-Low Crosstalk.

Due to long propagation distance and high sensitivity to a variety of damages, ultrasonic guided wave technologies have been widely applied in the damage detection or health monitoring of pipe networks and large plate-like structures. However, there are two important problems to be solved when applying this technology; namely, the large scanning time required for monitoring large-scaled structures and the serious crosstalk between the actuation and receiving signals, especially when monitoring hot-spot regions. Therefore, this study mainly designed key parts, such as the matrix switcher and attenuation circuit. The single-actuation and multiple-simultaneous-reception (SAMSR) mechanism based on an analog switching matrix and a low noise charge amplifier circuit was designed and integrated with the SPI control bus to shorten the scanning time. Moreover, a two-stage attenuation circuit with an interlocking isolation structure is presented to effectively isolate the receiving signals from the actuation signals to obtain ultra-low crosstalk even under a high voltage actuation source. In this study, the designed matrix switcher and other components were integrated into the developed ultrasonic guided wave monitoring system. Several experiments were conducted on a stiffened composite structure to illustrate the effectivity of the developed SAMSR ultrasonic guided wave system by comparing the signals collected with those from a commercial ultrasonic guided wave system.

Piezoelectric Transducer-Based Structural Health Monitoring for Aircraft Applications.

Structural health monitoring (SHM) is being widely evaluated by the aerospace industry as a method to improve the safety and reliability of aircraft structures and also reduce operational cost. Built-in sensor networks on an aircraft structure can provide crucial information regarding the condition, damage state and/or service environment of the structure. Among the various types of transducers used for SHM, piezoelectric materials are widely used because they can be employed as either actuators or sensors due to their piezoelectric effect and vice versa. This paper provides a brief overview of piezoelectric transducer-based SHM system technology developed for aircraft applications in the past two decades. The requirements for practical implementation and use of structural health monitoring systems in aircraft application are then introduced. State-of-the-art techniques for solving some practical issues, such as sensor network integration, scalability to large structures, reliability and effect of environmental conditions, robust damage detection and quantification are discussed. Development trend of SHM technology is also discussed.

Identification and Compensation Technique of Non-Uniform Temperature Field for Lamb Wave-and Multiple Sensors-Based Damage Detection.

Lamb wave-based damage detection for large-scale composites is one of the most prosperous structural health monitoring technologies for aircraft structures. However, the temperature has a significant effect on the amplitude and phase of the Lamb wave signal so that temperature compensation is always the focus problem. Especially, it is difficult to identify the damage in the aircraft structures when the temperature is not uniform. In this paper, a compensation method for Lamb wave-based damage detection within a non-uniform temperature field is proposed. Hilbert transform and Levenberg-Marquardt optimization algorithm are developed to extract the amplitude and phase variation caused by the change of temperature, which is used to establish a data-driven model for reconstructing the reference signal at a certain temperature. In the temperature compensation process, the current Lamb wave signal of each exciting-sensing path under the estimated structural condition is substituted into the data-driven model to identify an interpolated initial temperature field, which is further processed by an outlier removing algorithm to eliminate the effect of damage and get the actual non-uniform temperature field. Temperature compensation can be achieved by reconstructing the reference signals within the identified non-uniform temperature field, which are used to compare with the current acquired signals for damage imaging. Both simulation and experiment were conducted to verify the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed non-uniform temperature field identification and compensation technique for Lamb wave-based structural health monitoring.

A Reference Matching-Based Temperature Compensation Method for Ultrasonic Guided Wave Signals.

The ultrasonic guided wave-based structural damage diagnosis method has broad application prospects in different fields. However, some environmental factors such as temperature and loads will significantly affect the monitoring results. In this paper, a reference matching-based temperature compensation for ultrasonic guided wave signals is proposed to eliminate the effect of temperature. Firstly, the guided wave signals measured at different temperatures are used as reference signals to establish the relationship between the features of the reference signals and temperature. Then the matching algorithm based on Gabor function is used to establish the relationship between the amplitude influence coefficient obtained by the reference signal and the corresponding temperature. Finally, through these two relationships, the values of the phase and amplitude influence coefficients of the guided wave signals at other temperatures are obtained in a way of interpolation in order to reconstruct the compensation signals at the temperature. The effect of temperature on the amplitude and phase of the guided wave signal is eliminated. The proposed temperature compensation method is featured such that the compensation performance can be improved by multiple iteration compensation of the residual signal. The ultrasonic guided wave test results at different temperatures show that the first iterative compensation of the proposed method can achieve compensation within the temperature range greater than 7 °C, and the compensation within the temperature range greater than 18 °C can be achieved after three iterations.

A Flexible Capacitive Pressure Sensor Based on Ionic Liquid.

A flexible microfluidic super-capacitive pressure sensor is developed to measure the surface pressure of a complex structure. The innovative sensor contains a filter paper filled with ionic liquid, and coated with two indium tin oxide polyethylene terephthalate (ITO-PET) films on the top and bottom, respectively. When external pressure is applied on the top ITO-PET film of the sensor mounted on the surface of an aircraft, the capacitance between the two ITO-PET films will change because of the deformation of the top ITO-PET film. The external pressure will be determined based on the change of the capacitance. Compared to the traditional pressure sensor, the developed sensor provides a high sensitivity of up to 178.5 nF/KPa and rapid dynamic responses for pressure measurement. Meanwhile, experiments are also conducted to study the influence of the thickness of the sensing film, sensing area, temperature, and humidity.

High Strain Survivability of Piezoceramics by Optimal Bonding Adhesive Design.

As one of the most common transducers used in structural health monitoring (SHM), piezoceramic sensors can play an important role in both damage detection and impact monitoring. However, the low tensile strain survivability of piezoceramics resulting from the material nature significantly limits their application on SHM in the aerospace industry. This paper proposes a novel approach to greatly improve the strain survivability of piezoceramics by optimal design of the adhesive used to bond them to the host structure. Theoretical model for determining the strain transfer coefficient through bonded adhesive from the host structure to piezoceramic is first established. Finite element analysis is then utilized to study the parameters of adhesive, including thickness and shear modulus. Experiments are finally conducted to validate the proposed method, and results show the piezoceramic sensors still work well when they are bonded on the host structures with tensile strain up to 4000 µÎµ by using the optimal adhesive.

Homo- and Heteroligand Poly-NHC Metal Assemblies: Synthesis by Narcissistic and Social Self-Sorting.

Homoleptic and heteroleptic cylinder-shaped poly-NHC metallosupramolecular assemblies [Ag3 (L)2 ](BF4 )3 have been prepared by control of the shape, size, and electronic properties of disk-shaped trisimidazolium salts of type H3 -L(BF4 )3 . Both imidazolium salts with an electron-deficient triazine backbone H3 -A(BF4 )3 or an electron-rich benzene backbone H3 -D(BF4 )3 have been employed. Reaction of H3 -A(BF4 )3 or H3 -D(BF4 )3 with Ag2 O yield trinuclear homoligand complexes [Ag3 (L)2 ](BF4 )3 (L=A, D). However, equimolar mixtures of H3 -A(BF4 )3 and H3 -D(BF4 )3 react with Ag2 O under social self-sorting to give the heteroligand assembly [Ag3 (A)(D)](BF4 )3 . The same heteroligand assembly was obtained by transmetallation from mixtures of complexes [Ag3 (A)2 ](BF4 )3 and [Ag3 (D)2 ](BF4 )3 . The transmetallation from [Ag3 (A)(D)](BF4 )3 to [Au3 (A)(D)](BF4 )3 is also demonstrated. The study expands to concepts of narcissistic and social self-sorting from classical Werner-type ligands to organometallic NHC chemistry thereby opening new routes for the construction of poly-NHC metal assemblies with increasing complexity.

Template Synthesis of Three-Dimensional Hexakisimidazolium Cages.

A procedure for the synthesis of three-dimensional hexakisimidazolium cage compounds has been developed. The reaction of the trigonal trisimidazolium salts H3 L(PF6 )3 , decorated with three N-olefinic pendants, and silver oxide yielded trinuclear trisilver(I) hexacarbene molecular cylinders of the type [Ag3 L2 ]3+ with the olefinic pendants from the two different tricarbene ligands arranged in three pairs. Subsequent UV irradiation gave three cyclobutane links between the two tris-NHC ligands in three [2+2] cycloaddition reactions, thereby generating a three-dimensional hexakis-NHC ligand. Removal of the metal ions resulted in the formation of three-dimensional hexakisimidazolium cages with a large internal cavity.

Characteristics Study of In-Situ Capacitive Sensor for Monitoring Lubrication Oil Debris.

As an essential part of engine health monitoring (EHM), online lubrication oil debris monitoring has recently received great attention for the assessment of rotating and reciprocating parts in aero-engines, due to its high integration, low cost and safe characteristics. However, it is be a challenge to find a suitable sensor operating in such a complex environment. We present an unconventional novel approach, in which a cylinder capacitive sensor is designed and integrated with the pipeline of an engine lubrication system, so that the capacitive sensor can effectively detect changes in the lubrication oil condition. In this paper, an attempt to illustrate the performance characteristics of the developed cylinder capacitive sensor is made, through an experiment system that simulates a real scenario of a lubrication oil system. The main aim of the research was to qualitatively describe the relationship between the sensor parameter and the lubrication oil debris. In addition, the effect of the temperature and flow rate of the lubrication oil on capacitance change was performed by several experiments and we figured out a compensation method. The experimental results demonstrated that the cylinder capacitive sensor can potentially be used for lubrication oil debris monitoring of the health condition of an aero-engine.

Corrosion quantification of plate-type structures using Lamb wavefield and monogenic signal processing.

Corrosion is one of the most common damage types which seriously affects structural safety. In this paper, a Lamb wavefield-based monogenic signal processing algorithm is proposed to quantify the corrosion parameters, including location, area, shape and depth, in plate-type structures. The monogenic signal processing based on Riesz transform will cause a serious problem, that is, phase wrapping. To solve this problem, a robust fast phase unwrapping algorithm is developed. Then, the phase spatial distribution of the extracted Lamb wavefield can be extracted, which can be used to calculate the wavenumber distribution. The wavenumber distribution is related to the structure thickness or corrosion depth, which can be further used for corrosion imaging. Simulated Lamb wavefield signals calculated by finite element simulation are employed to evaluate the parameters of circular corrosion and complex umbrella corrosion. The results show that the proposed algorithm has a great advantage in corrosion identification accuracy and calculation time compared with the existing algorithms. A completely non-contact laser ultrasonic system is established for acquiring Lamb wavefield containing square corrosion, and it is proved that the proposed algorithm is able to quantify the corrosion location, area, shape and depth with good accuracy in the experiment.

Rhodium-catalyzed annulative approach to N-N axially chiral biaryls via C-H activation and dynamic kinetic transformation.

N-N axially chiral biaryls represent a rarely explored class of atropisomeric compounds. We hereby report rhodium-catalyzed enantioselective [4 + 2] oxidative annulation of internal alkynes with benzamides bearing two classes of N-N directing groups. The coupling occurs under mild conditions via NH and CH annulation through the dynamic kinetic transformation of the directing group and is highly enantioselective with good functional tolerance. Computational studies of a coupling system at the DFT level has been conducted, and the alkyne insertion was identified as the enantio-determining as well as the turnover-limiting step.

Rhodium-catalyzed enantioselective and diastereodivergent access to diaxially chiral heterocycles.

N-N axially chiral biaryls represent a rarely explored class of atropisomers. Reported herein is construction of diverse classes of diaxially chiral biaryls containing N-N and C-N/C-C diaxes in distal positions in excellent enantioselectivity and diastereoselectivity. The N-N chiral axis in the products provides a handle toward solvent-driven diastereodivergence, as has been realized in the coupling of a large scope of benzamides and sterically hindered alkynes, affording diaxes in complementary diastereoselectivity. The diastereodivergence has been elucidated by computational studies which revealed that the hexafluoroisopropanol (HFIP) solvent molecule participated in an unusual manner as a solvent as well as a ligand and switched the sequence of two competing elementary steps, resulting in switch of the stereoselectivity of the alkyne insertion and inversion of the configuration of the C-C axis. Further cleavage of the N-directing group in the diaxial chiral products transforms the diastereodivergence to enantiodivergence.

A multi pathway coupled domino strategy: I2/TBHP-promoted synthesis of imidazopyridines and thiazoles via sp3, sp2 and sp C-H functionalization.

I2/TBHP-promoted, one-pot, multi pathway synthesis of imidazopyridines and thiazoles has been achieved through readily available ethylarenes, ethylenearenes and ethynearenes. I2/TBHP as an initiator and oxidant is used to realize the C-H functionalization of this domino reaction. Simple and available starting materials, wide range of functional group tolerance, high potential for drug activity of the products and application in production are the advantageous features of this method.

A New Laser Ultrasonic Inspection Method for the Detection of Multiple Delamination Defects.

Delamination is one of the most common types of defects for carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) composites. The application of laser techniques to detect delamination faces difficulties with ultrasonic wave excitation because of its low thermal conductivity. Much of the research that can be found in the literature has only focused on the detection of a single delamination. In this study, aluminum foil was pasted onto the surface of the composite so that it was vulnerable to ablation and could acquire a usable signal. Using a fully noncontact system with laser excitation at a fixed point and a scanning laser sensor, the effects of different aluminum foil sizes and shapes on the wavefield were studied for the composites; we decided to use a rectangle with 3 mm length and 5 mm width for laser excitation experiments. Wavefield characteristics of the composite plates were analyzed with single- and multi-layered Teflon inserts. Taking the time window for standard ultrasonic testing as a reference, the algorithms for localized wave energy with appropriate time windows are presented for the detection of single and multiple defects. The appropriate time window is meaningful for identifying each delamination defect. The algorithm performs well in delamination detection of the composites with one or multiple Teflon inserts.

Cure monitoring and damage identification of CFRP using embedded piezoelectric sensors network.

Because of the advantages of high specific strength and high specific stiffness, carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) have been the most ideal materials in the field of civil aviation. Cure monitoring in manufacturing process and damage identification in service stage of CFRP are always hot topics. The Semi-Analytical Finite Element (SAFE) method and micromechanical model are employed to analyse the propagation characteristics of the Lamb-like waves in a continuous flat aluminium plate attached to a viscoelastic unidirectional CFRP in semi-infinite half-space. Then the vacuum bag moulding process of prepregs is monitored using Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) and piezoelectric sensors encapsulated in Stanford Multiactuator-Receiver Transduction (SMART) Layer. The calculated energy velocities and attenuations of guided waves show the same trends with the numerical results while curing. After the CFRP is demoulded, the damage identification experiments are carried out. By continuing to use the sensor network embedded in the manufacturing phase, the artificial damages can be precisely located. The results demonstrated that the life-cycle monitoring of CFRP can be achieved effectively by the piezoelectric sensors network.