Chimeric antigen receptors of HBV envelope proteins inhibit hepatitis B surface antigen secretion.

OBJECTIVES: Chronic hepatitis B (CHB) caused by HBV infection greatly increases the risk of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) plays critical roles in the pathogenesis of CHB. HBsAg loss is the key indicator for cure of CHB, but is rarely achieved by current approved anti-HBV drugs. Therefore, novel anti-HBV strategies are urgently needed to achieve sustained HBsAg loss. DESIGN: We developed multiple chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) based on single-chain variable fragments (scFvs, namely MA18/7-scFv and G12-scFv), respectively, targeting HBV large and small envelope proteins. Their impacts on HBsAg secretion and HBV infection, and the underlying mechanisms, were extensively investigated using various cell culture models and HBV mouse models. RESULTS: After secretory signal peptide mediated translocation into endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and secretory pathway, MA18/7-scFv and CARs blocked HBV infection and virion secretion. G12-scFv preferentially inhibited virion secretion, while both its CAR formats and crystallisable fragment (Fc)-attached versions blocked HBsAg secretion. G12-scFv and G12-CAR arrested HBV envelope proteins mainly in ER and potently inhibited HBV budding. Furthermore, G12-scFv-Fc and G12-CAR-Fc strongly suppressed serum HBsAg up to 130-fold in HBV mouse models. The inhibitory effect lasted for at least 8 weeks when delivered by an adeno-associated virus vector. CONCLUSION: CARs possess direct antiviral activity, besides the well-known application in T-cell therapy. Fc attached G12-scFv and G12-CARs could provide a novel approach for reducing circulating HBsAg.

Dexamethasone attenuates neuropathic pain through spinal microglial expression of dynorphin A via the cAMP/PKA/p38 MAPK/CREB signaling pathway.

This study aimed to elucidate the opioid mechanisms underlying dexamethasone-induced pain antihypersensitive effects in neuropathic rats. Dexamethasone (subcutaneous and intrathecal) and membrane-impermeable Dex-BSA (intrathecal) administration dose-dependently inhibited mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in neuropathic rats. Dexamethasone and Dex-BSA treatments increased expression of dynorphin A in the spinal cords and primary cultured microglia. Dexamethasone specifically enhanced dynorphin A expression in microglia but not astrocytes or neurons. Intrathecal injection of the microglial metabolic inhibitor minocycline blocked dexamethasone-stimulated spinal dynorphin A expression; intrathecal minocycline, the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist Dex-21-mesylate, dynorphin A antiserum, and κ-opioid receptor antagonist GNTI completely blocked dexamethasone-induced mechanical antiallodynia and thermal antihyperalgesia. Additionally, dexamethasone elevated spinal intracellular cAMP levels, leading to enhanced phosphorylation of PKA, p38 MAPK and CREB. The specific adenylate cyclase inhibitor DDA, PKA inhibitor H89, p38 MAPK inhibitor SB203580 and CREB inhibitor KG-501 completely blocked dexamethasone-induced anti-neuropathic pain and increased microglial dynorphin A exprression. In conclusion, this study reveal that dexamethasone mitigateds neuropathic pain through upregulation of dynorphin A in spinal microglia, likely involving the membrane glucocorticoid receptor/cAMP/PKA/p38 MAPK/CREB signaling pathway.

[Metabolomics of interventional effects of Coptidis Rhizoma and its processed products on oral ulcer due to excess heat in rats].

Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry(UPLC-Q/TOF-MS) was employed to examine the impact of Coptidis Rhizoma(CR) and its processed products on the metabolism in the rat model of oral ulcer due to excess heat and to compare the effectiveness of CR and its three products. Male SD rats were randomly allocated to the sham-operation(Sham), model(M, oral ulcer due to excess heat), CR, wine/Zingiberis Rhizoma Recens/Euodiae Fructus processed CR(wCR/zCR/eCR), and Huanglian Shangqing Tablets(HST) groups. Except the Sham group, the other groups were administrated with Codonopsis Radix-Astragali Radix decoction by gavage for two consecutive weeks. The anal temperature and water consumption of rats were monitored throughout the modeling period of excess heat. Following the completion of the modeling, oral ulcer was modeled with acetic acid. Hematoxylin-eosin(HE) staining was employed to observe the mucosal pathological changes in oral ulcer. A colorimetric assay was employed to determine the serum level of glutathione peroxidase(GSH-Px). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA) was conducted to determine the levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha(TNF-α), interleukin-6(IL-6), interleukin-1ß(IL-1ß), superoxide dismutase(SOD), and malondialdehyde(MDA) in the serum. The non-targeted metabolomics analysis based on UPLC-Q/TOF-MS was conducted on the serum samples. Metabolic profiles were then built, and the potential biomarkers were screened by principal component analysis(PCA) and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis(OPLS-DA). The Mev software was used to establish a heat map and conduct cluster analysis on the quantitative results of the markers. The online databases including MBRole, KEGG, and MetaboAnalyst were used for pathway enrichment analysis and metabolic network building. The experimental results showed that the modeling led to pathological damage to the oral mucosa, elevated serum levels of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1ß, and MDA, and lowered levels of SOD and GSH-Px in rats. The drug administration recovered all the indices to varying extents, and wCR exhibited the best performance. Non-targeted metabolomics identified 48 differential metabolites including 27 metabolites in the positive ion mode and 21 metabolites in the negative ion mode. Five enriched pathways were common, including glycerophospholipid metabolism, linoleic acid metabolism, and tyrosine metabolism. Conclusively, CR and its three processed products could alleviate the inflammation and oxidative stress injury in rats suffering from oral ulcers due to excess heat by regulating lipid and amino acid metabolism. Notably, wCR demonstrated the most significant therapeutic effect.

[Chemical constituents of diterpenoids from Boswellia carterii].

This paper explored the chemical constituents of Boswellia carterii by column chromatography on silica gel, Sephadex LH-20, ODS column chromatography, and semi-preparative HPLC. The structures of the compounds were identified by physicochemical properties and spectroscopic data such as infrared radiation(IR), ultra violet(UV), mass spectrometry(MS), and nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR). Seven diterpenoids were isolated and purified from n-hexane of B. carterii. The isolates were identified as(1S,3E,7E,11R,12R)-11-hydroxy-1-isopropyl-4,8,12-trimethyl-15-oxabicyclo[10.2.1]pentadeca-3,7-dien-5-one(1),(1R,3S,4R,7E,11E)-4,8,12,15,15-pentamethyl-14-oxabicyclo[11.2.1]hexadeca-7,11-dien-4-ol(2), incensole(3),(-)-(R)-nephthenol(4), euphraticanoid F(5), dilospirane B(6), and dictyotin C(7). Among them, compounds 1 and 2 were new and their absolute configurations were determined by comparison of the calculated and experimental electronic circular dichroisms(ECDs). Compounds 6 and 7 were obtained from B. carterii for the first time.

Microglial IL-10 and ß-endorphin expression mediates gabapentinoids antineuropathic pain.

Gabapentinoids are recommended first-line treatments for neuropathic pain. They are neuronal voltage-dependent calcium channel α2δ-1 subunit ligands and have been suggested to attenuate neuropathic pain via interaction with neuronal α2δ-1 subunit. However, the current study revealed their microglial mechanisms underlying antineuropathic pain. Intrathecal injection of gabapentin, pregabalin and mirogabalin rapidly inhibited mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia, with projected ED50 values of 30.3, 6.2 and 1.5 µg (or 176.9, 38.9 and 7.2 nmol) and Emax values of 66%, 61% and 65% MPE respectively for mechanical allodynia. Intrathecal gabapentinoids stimulated spinal mRNA and protein expression of IL-10 and ß-endorphin (but not dynorphin A) in neuropathic rats with the time point parallel to their inhibition of allodynia, which was observed in microglia but not astrocytes or neurons in spinal dorsal horns by using double immunofluorescence staining. Intrathecal gabapentin alleviated pain hypersensitivity in male/female neuropathic but not male sham rats, whereas it increased expression of spinal IL-10 and ß-endorphin in male/female neuropathic and male sham rats. Treatment with gabapentin, pregabalin and mirogabalin specifically upregulated IL-10 and ß-endorphin mRNA and protein expression in primary spinal microglial but not astrocytic or neuronal cells, with EC50 values of 41.3, 11.5 and 2.5 µM and 34.7, 13.3 and 2.8 µM respectively. Pretreatment with intrathecal microglial metabolic inhibitor minocycline, IL-10 antibody, ß-endorphin antiserum or µ-opioid receptor antagonist CTAP (but not κ- or δ-opioid receptor antagonists) suppressed spinal gabapentinoids-inhibited mechanical allodynia. Immunofluorescence staining exhibited specific α2δ-1 expression in neurons but not microglia or astrocytes in the spinal dorsal horns or cultured primary spinal cells. Thus the results illustrate that gabapentinoids alleviate neuropathic pain through stimulating expression of spinal microglial IL-10 and consequent ß-endorphin.

Interferon-inducible MX2 is a host restriction factor of hepatitis B virus replication.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Non-cytolytic cure of HBV-infected hepatocytes by cytokines, including type I interferons (IFNs), is of importance for resolving acute and chronic infection. However, as IFNs stimulate hundreds of genes, those most relevant for HBV suppression remain largely unknown. Amongst them are the large myxovirus resistance (Mx) GTPases. Human MX1 (or MxA) is active against many RNA viruses, while MX2 (or MxB) was recently found to restrict HIV-1, HCV, and herpesviruses. Herein, we investigated the anti-HBV activity of MX2. METHODS: The potential anti-HBV activity of MX2 and functional variants were assessed in transfected and HBV-infected hepatoma cells and primary human hepatocytes, employing multiple assays to analyze the synthesis and decay of HBV nucleic acids. The specific roles of MX2 in IFN-α-driven inhibition of HBV transcription and replication were assessed by MX2-specific shRNA interference (RNAi). RESULTS: Both MX2 alone and IFN-α substantially inhibited HBV replication, due to significant deceleration of the synthesis and slight acceleration of the turnover of viral RNA. RNAi knockdown of MX2 significantly reduced the inhibitory effects of IFN-α. Strikingly, MX2 inhibited HBV infection by reducing covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA), most likely by indirectly impairing the conversion of relaxed circular DNA to cccDNA rather than by destabilizing existing cccDNA. Various mutations affecting the GTPase activity and oligomerization status reduced MX2's anti-HBV activity. CONCLUSION: MX2 is an important IFN-α inducible effector that decreases HBV RNA levels but can also potently inhibit HBV infection by indirectly impairing cccDNA formation. MX2 likely has the potential for therapeutic applications aimed at curing HBV infection by eliminating cccDNA. LAY SUMMARY: This study shows that the protein MX2, which is induced by interferon-α, has important anti-hepatitis B virus (HBV) effector functions. MX2 can reduce the amount of covalently closed circular DNA, which is the form of DNA that HBV uses to maintain viral persistence within hepatocytes. MX2 also reduces HBV RNA levels by downregulating synthesis of viral RNA. MX2 likely represents a novel intrinsic HBV inhibitor that could have therapeutic potential, as well as being useful for improving our understanding of the complex biology of HBV and the antiviral mechanisms of interferon-α.

Lemairamin, isolated from the Zanthoxylum plants, alleviates pain hypersensitivity via spinal α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

Lemairamin (also known as wgx-50), is isolated from the pericarps of the Zanthoxylum plants. As an agonist of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7nAChRs), it can reduce neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease. This study evaluated its antinociceptive effects in pain hypersensitivity and explored the underlying mechanisms. The data showed that subcutaneous lemairamin injection dose-dependently inhibited formalin-induced tonic pain but not acute nociception in mice and rats, while intrathecal lemairamin injection also dose-dependently produced mechanical antiallodynia in the ipsilateral hindpaws of neuropathic and bone cancer pain rats without affecting mechanical thresholds in the contralateral hindpaws. Multiple bi-daily lemairamin injections for 7 days did not induce mechanical antiallodynic tolerance in neuropathic rats. Moreover, the antinociceptive effects of lemairamin in formalin-induced tonic pain and mechanical antiallodynia in neuropathic pain were suppressed by the α7nAChR antagonist methyllycaconitine. In an α7nAChR antagonist-reversible manner, intrathecal lemairamin also stimulated spinal expression of IL-10 and ß-endorphin, while lemairamin treatment induced IL-10 and ß-endorphin expression in primary spinal microglial cells. In addition, intrathecal injection of a microglial activation inhibitor minocycline, anti-IL-10 antibody, anti-ß-endorphin antiserum or µ-opioid receptor-preferred antagonist naloxone was all able to block lemairamin-induced mechanical antiallodynia in neuropathic pain. These data demonstrated that lemairamin could produce antinociception in pain hypersensitivity through the spinal IL-10/ß-endorphin pathway following α7nAChR activation.

The spinal microglial IL-10/ß-endorphin pathway accounts for cinobufagin-induced mechanical antiallodynia in bone cancer pain following activation of α7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

BACKGROUND: Cinobufagin is the major bufadienolide of Bufonis venenum (Chansu), which has been traditionally used for the treatment of chronic pain especially cancer pain. The current study aimed to evaluate its antinociceptive effects in bone cancer pain and explore the underlying mechanisms. METHODS: Rat bone cancer model was used in this study. The withdrawal threshold evoked by stimulation of the hindpaw was determined using a 2290 CE electrical von Frey hair. The ß-endorphin and IL-10 levels were measured in the spinal cord and cultured primary microglia, astrocytes, and neurons. RESULTS: Cinobufagin, given intrathecally, dose-dependently attenuated mechanical allodynia in bone cancer pain rats, with the projected Emax of 90% MPE and ED50 of 6.4 µg. Intrathecal cinobufagin also stimulated the gene and protein expression of IL-10 and ß-endorphin (but not dynorphin A) in the spinal cords of bone cancer pain rats. In addition, treatment with cinobufagin in cultured primary spinal microglia but not astrocytes or neurons stimulated the mRNA and protein expression of IL-10 and ß-endorphin, which was prevented by the pretreatment with the IL-10 antibody but not ß-endorphin antiserum. Furthermore, spinal cinobufagin-induced mechanical antiallodynia was inhibited by the pretreatment with intrathecal injection of the microglial inhibitor minocycline, IL-10 antibody, ß-endorphin antiserum and specific µ-opioid receptor antagonist CTAP. Lastly, cinobufagin- and the specific α-7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7-nAChR) agonist PHA-543613-induced microglial gene expression of IL-10/ß-endorphin and mechanical antiallodynia in bone cancer pain were blocked by the pretreatment with the specific α7-nAChR antagonist methyllycaconitine. CONCLUSIONS: Our results illustrate that cinobufagin produces mechanical antiallodynia in bone cancer pain through spinal microglial expression of IL-10 and subsequent ß-endorphin following activation of α7-nAChRs. Our results also highlight the broad significance of the recently uncovered spinal microglial IL-10/ß-endorphin pathway in antinociception.

Bulleyaconitine A Inhibits Visceral Nociception and Spinal Synaptic Plasticity through Stimulation of Microglial Release of Dynorphin A.

Background: Visceral pain is one of the most common types of pain and particularly in the abdomen is associated with gastrointestinal diseases. Bulleyaconitine A (BAA), isolated from Aconitum bulleyanum, is prescribed in China to treat chronic pain. The present study is aimed at evaluating the mechanisms underlying BAA visceral antinociception. Methods: The rat model of chronic visceral hypersensitivity was set up by colonic perfusion of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) on postnatal day 10 with coapplication of heterotypic intermittent chronic stress (HeICS). Results: The rat model of chronic visceral hypersensitivity exhibited remarkable abdominal withdrawal responses and mechanical hyperalgesia in hind paws, which were dose-dependently attenuated by single subcutaneous of administration of BAA (30 and 90 µg/kg). Pretreatment with the microglial inhibitor minocycline, dynorphin A antiserum, and κ-opioid receptor antagonist totally blocked BAA-induced visceral antinociception and mechanical antihyperalgesia. Spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) in spinal dorsal horn lamina II neurons were recorded by using whole-cell patch clamp. Its frequency (but not amplitude) from TNBS-treated rats was remarkably higher than that from naïve rats. BAA (1 µM) significantly reduced the frequency of sEPSCs from TNBS-treated rats but not naïve rats. BAA-inhibited spinal synaptic plasticity was blocked by minocycline, the dynorphin A antiserum, and κ-opioid receptor antagonist. Dynorphin A also inhibited spinal synaptic plasticity in a κ-opioid receptor-dependent manner. Conclusions: These results suggest that BAA produces visceral antinociception by stimulating spinal microglial release of dynorphin A, which activates presynaptic κ-opioid receptors in afferent neurons and inhibits spinal synaptic plasticity, highlighting a novel interaction mode between microglia and neurons.

Activation of GPR40 produces mechanical antiallodynia via the spinal glial interleukin-10/ß-endorphin pathway.

BACKGROUND: The G protein-coupled receptor 40 (GPR40), broadly expressed in various tissues such as the spinal cord, exerts multiple physiological functions including pain regulation. This study aimed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying GPR40 activation-induced antinociception in neuropathic pain, particularly related to the spinal glial expression of IL-10 and subsequent ß-endorphin. METHODS: Spinal nerve ligation-induced neuropathic pain model was used in this study. ß-Endorphin and IL-10 levels were measured in the spinal cord and cultured primary microglia, astrocytes, and neurons. Double immunofluorescence staining of ß-endorphin with glial and neuronal cellular biomarkers was also detected in the spinal cord and cultured primary microglia, astrocytes, and neurons. RESULTS: GPR40 was expressed on microglia, astrocytes, and neurons in the spinal cords and upregulated by spinal nerve ligation. Intrathecal injection of the GPR40 agonist GW9508 dose-dependently attenuated mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in neuropathic rats, with Emax values of 80% and 100% MPE and ED50 values of 6.7 and 5.4 µg, respectively. Its mechanical antiallodynia was blocked by the selective GPR40 antagonist GW1100 but not GPR120 antagonist AH7614. Intrathecal GW9508 significantly enhanced IL-10 and ß-endorphin immunostaining in spinal microglia and astrocytes but not in neurons. GW9508 also markedly stimulated gene and protein expression of IL-10 and ß-endorphin in cultured primary spinal microglia and astrocytes but not in neurons, originated from 1-day-old neonatal rats. The IL-10 antibody inhibited GW9508-stimulated gene expression of the ß-endorphin precursor proopiomelanocortin (POMC) but not IL-10, whereas the ß-endorphin antibody did not affect GW9508-stimulated IL-10 or POMC gene expression. GW9508 increased phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) including p38, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and its stimulatory effects on IL-10 and POMC expression were blocked by each MAPK isoform inhibitor. Spinal GW9508-induced mechanical antiallodynia was completely blocked by intrathecal minocycline, IL-10 neutralizing antibody, ß-endorphin antiserum, and µ-opioid receptor-preferred antagonist naloxone. CONCLUSIONS: Our results illustrate that GPR40 activation produces antinociception via the spinal glial IL-10/ß-endorphin antinociceptive pathway.

Autocrine Interleukin-10 Mediates Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor-Induced Spinal Microglial ß-Endorphin Expression.

The glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist exenatide stimulates microglial ß-endorphin expression and subsequently produces neuroprotection and antinociception. This study illustrated an unrecognized autocrine role of IL-10 in mediation of exenatide-induced ß-endorphin expression. Treatment with exenatide in cultured primary spinal microglia concentration dependently stimulated the expression of the M2 microglial markers IL-10, IL-4, Arg 1, and CD206, but not the M1 microglial markers TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6, or CD68. Intrathecal exenatide injection also significantly upregulated spinal microglial expression of IL-10, IL-4, Arg 1, and CD206, but not TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6, or CD68. Intrathecal injection of exenatide stimulated spinal microglial expression of IL-10 and ß-endorphin in neuropathic rats. Furthermore, treatment with IL-10 (but not IL-4) stimulated ß-endorphin expression in cultured primary microglia, whereas treatment with ß-endorphin failed to increase IL-10 expression. The IL-10-neutralizing antibody entirely blocked exenatide-induced spinal microglial expression of ß-endorphin in vitro and in vivo and fully blocked exenatide mechanical antiallodynia in neuropathic rats. Moreover, specific cAMP/PKA/p38 signal inhibitors and siRNA/p38ß, but not siRNA/p38α, completely blocked exenatide-induced IL-10 expression in cultured primary microglia. Knock-down of IL-10 receptor-α mRNA using siRNA fully inhibited exenatide-induced spinal microglial ß-endorphin expression and mechanical antiallodynia in neuropathy. Exenatide also markedly stimulated phosphorylation of the transcription factor STAT3 in cultured primary microglia and ß-endorphin stimulation was completely inhibited by the specific STAT3 activation inhibitor. These results revealed that IL-10 in microglia mediated ß-endorphin expression after GLP-1 receptor activation through the autocrine cAMP/PKA/p38ß/CREB and subsequent IL-10 receptor/STAT3 signal pathways.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Activation of GLP-1 receptors specifically and simultaneously stimulates the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 and IL-4, as well as the neuroprotective factor ß-endorphin from microglia. GLP-1 receptor agonism induces ß-endorphin expression and antinociception through autocrine release of IL-10. Activation of GLP-1 receptors stimulates IL-10 and ß-endorphin expression subsequently through the Gs-cAMP/PKA/p38ß/CREB and IL-10/IL-10 receptor-α/STAT3 signal transduction pathways.

PGI2 Is a Novel SGI1-Relative Multidrug-Resistant Genomic Island Characterized in Proteus mirabilis.

A novel 61,578-bp genomic island named Proteus genomic island 2 (PGI2) was characterized in Proteus mirabilis of swine origin in China. The 23.85-kb backbone of PGI2 is related to those of Salmonella genomic island 1 and Acinetobacter genomic island 1. The multidrug resistance (MDR) region of PGI2 is a complex class 1 integron containing 14 different resistance genes. PGI2 was conjugally mobilized in trans to Escherichia coli in the presence of a conjugative IncC helper plasmid.

Tn6450, a Novel Multidrug Resistance Transposon Characterized in a Proteus mirabilis Isolate from Chicken in China.

A novel 65.8-kb multidrug resistance transposon, designated Tn6450, was characterized in a Proteus mirabilis isolate from chicken in China. Tn6450 contains 18 different antimicrobial resistance genes, including cephalosporinase gene blaDHA-1 and fluoroquinolone resistance genes qnrA1 and aac(6')-Ib-cr It carries a class 1/2 hybrid integron composed of intI2 and a 3' conserved segment of the class 1 integron. Tn6450 is derived from Tn7 via acquisition of new mobile elements and resistance genes.

Liposome-encapsulated clodronate specifically depletes spinal microglia and reduces initial neuropathic pain.

Liposome-encapsulated clodronate (LEC) is a specific depletor of macrophages. Our study characterized the LEC depletory effects, given intrathecally, on spinal microglia and assessed its effects on initiation and maintenance of neuropathic pain. Measured by using the MTT assay, LEC treatment specifically inhibited cell viability of cultured primary microglia, but not astrocytes or neurons, from neonatal rats, with an IC50 of 43 µg/mL. In spinal nerve ligation-induced neuropathic rats, pretreatment (1 day but not 5 days earlier) with intrathecal LEC specifically depleted microglia (but not astrocytes or neurons) in both contralateral and ipsilateral dorsal horns by the same degree (63% vs. 71%). Intrathecal injection of LEC reversibly blocked the antinociceptive effects of the GLP-1 receptor agonist exenatide and dynorphin A stimulator bulleyaconitine, which have been claimed to be mediated by spinal microglia, whereas it failed to alter morphine- or the glycine receptor agonist gelsemine-induced mechanical antiallodynia which was mediated via the neuronal mechanisms. Furthermore, intrathecal LEC injection significantly attenuated initial (one day after nerve injury) but not existing (2 weeks after nerve injury) mechanical allodynia. Our study demonstrated that LEC, given intrathecally, is a specific spinal microglial inhibitor and significantly reduces initiation but not maintenance of neuropathic pain, highlighting an opposite role of spinal microglia in different stages of neuropathic pain.

Regulation of Gli2 stability by deubiquitinase OTUB2.

The transcription factor Gli2 plays crucial roles in the transduction of Hedgehog (Hh) signals, yet the mechanisms that control Gli2 degradation remain unclear. Here we have identified the eubiquitinating enzyme otubain2 (OTUB2) as a regulator of Gli2 protein degradation. We found that OTUB2 was coimmunoprecipitated with Gli2. Knockdown of OTUB2 decreased Gli2 protein level while the proteasome inhibitor MG-132 treatment restored Gli2 expression. Additionally, OTUB2 overexpression stabilized Gli2 protein in U2OS cells and extended the half-life of Gli2. We also found that knockdown of OTUB2 reduced deubiquitination of Gli2 in vivo. In vitro deubiquitination assay showed that ubiquitinated Gli2 was decreased by wild-type OTUB2 but not OTUB2 mutations. We also found that OTUB2 knockdown suppressed the ALP activity and the expression of the common markers BMP2 and RUNX2 during osteogenesis of MSCs in response to Shh and Smo agonists, which indicated OTUB2 may have effect on osteogenic differentiation by regulating Hh signaling.

Spinal interleukin-10 produces antinociception in neuropathy through microglial ß-endorphin expression, separated from antineuroinflammation.

Interleukin 10 (IL-10) is antinociceptive in various animal models of pain without induction of tolerance, and its mechanism of action was generally believed to be mediated by inhibition of neuroinflammation. Here we reported that intrathecal IL-10 injection dose dependently attenuated mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesiain male and female neuropathic rats, with ED50 values of 40.8 ng and 24 ng, and Emax values of 61.5% MPE and 100% MPE in male rats. Treatment with IL-10 specifically increased expression of the ß-endorphin (but not prodynorphin) gene and protein in primary cultures of spinal microglia but not in astrocytes or neurons. Intrathecal injection of IL-10 stimulated ß-endorphin expression from microglia but not neurons or astrocytes in both contralateral and ipsilateral spinal cords of neuropathic rats. However, intrathecal injection of the ß-endorphin neutralizing antibody, opioid receptor antagonist naloxone, or µ-opioid receptor antagonist CTAP completely blocked spinal IL-10-induced mechanical antiallodynia, while the microglial inhibitor minocycline and specific microglia depletor reversed spinal IL-10-induced ß-endorphin overexpression and mechanical antiallodynia. IL-10 treatment increased spinal microglial STAT3 phosphorylation, and the STAT3 inhibitor NSC74859 completely reversed IL-10-increased spinal expression of ß-endorphin and neuroinflammatory cytokines and mechanical antiallodynia. Silence of the Bcl3 and Socs3 genes nearly fully reversed IL-10-induced suppression of neuroinflammatory cytokines (but not expression of ß-endorphin), although it had no effect on mechanical allodynia. In contrast, disruption of the POMC gene completely blocked IL-10-stimulated ß-endorphin expression and mechanical antiallodynia, but had no effect on IL-10 inhibited expression of neuroinflammatory cytokines. Thus this study revealed that IL-10 produced antinociception through spinal microglial ß-endorphin expression, but not inhibition of neuroinflammation.

p38ß Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling Mediates Exenatide-Stimulated Microglial ß-Endorphin Expression.

Recent discoveries established that activation of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptors (GLP-1Rs) mediates neuroprotection and antinociception through microglial ß-endorphin expression. This study aimed to explore the underlying signaling mechanisms of microglial ß-endorphin. GLP-1Rs and ß-endorphin were coexpressed in primary cultures of microglia. Treatment with the GLP-1R agonist exenatide concentration-dependently stimulated microglial expression of the ß-endorphin precursor gene proopiomelanocortin (POMC) and peptides, with EC50 values of 4.1 and 7.5 nM, respectively. Exenatide also significantly increased intracellular cAMP levels and expression of p-protein kinase A (PKA), p-p38, and p-cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) in cultured primary microglia. Furthermore, exenatide-induced microglial expression of POMC was completely blocked by reagents that specifically inhibit adenylyl cyclase and activation of PKA, p38, and CREB. In addition, knockdown of p38ß (but not p38α) using short interfering RNA (siRNA) eliminated exenatide-induced microglial p38 phosphorylation and POMC expression. In contrast, lipopolysaccharide increased microglial activation of p38, and knockdown of p38α (but not p38ß) partially suppressed expression of proinflammatory factors (including tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1ß, and interleukin-6). Exenatide-induced phosphorylation of p38 and CREB was also totally blocked by the PKA inhibitor and siRNA/p38ß, but not by siRNA/p38α Seven-day intrathecal injections of siRNA/p38ß (but not siRNA/p38α) completely blocked exenatide-induced spinal p38 activation, ß-endorphin expression, and mechanical antiallodynia in rats with established neuropathy, although siRNA/p38ß and siRNA/p38α were not antiallodynic. To our knowledge, our results are the first to show a causal relationship between the PKA-dependent p38ß mitogen-activated protein kinase/CREB signal cascade and GLP-1R agonism-mediated microglial ß-endorphin expression. The differential role of p38α and p38ß activation in inflammation and nociception was also highlighted.

Colocation of the Multiresistance Gene cfr and the Fosfomycin Resistance Gene fosD on a Novel Plasmid in Staphylococcus arlettae from a Chicken Farm.

The novel 63,558-bp plasmid pSA-01, which harbors nine antibiotic resistance genes, including cfr, erm(C), tet(L), erm(T), aadD, fosD, fexB, aacA-aphD, and erm(B), was characterized in Staphylococcus arlettae strain SA-01, isolated from a chicken farm in China. The colocation of cfr and fosD genes was detected for the first time in an S. arlettae plasmid. The detection of two IS431-mediated circular forms containing resistance genes in SA-01 suggested that IS431 may facilitate dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes.

Colistin Resistance Gene mcr-1 and Its Variant in Escherichia coli Isolates from Chickens in China.

The mcr-1 gene was detected in 5.11% (58/1136) of Escherichia coli isolates of chicken origin from 13 provinces in China. A novel mcr-1 variant, named mcr-1.3, encoding an Ile-to-Val functional variant of MCR-1 was identified in a sequence type 155 (ST155) strain. An mcr-1.3-containing IncI2 plasmid, pHeN867 (60,757 bp), was identified. The transfer of pHeN867 led to a 32-fold increase in the MIC of colistin in the recipient, exhibiting an effect on colistin resistance that was similar to that of mcr-1.

Various Sequence Types of Escherichia coli Isolates Coharboring blaNDM-5 and mcr-1 Genes from a Commercial Swine Farm in China.

Sixteen different sequence types (STs) of Escherichia coli isolates from a commercial swine farm in China were confirmed to coharbor the carbapenem resistance gene blaNDM-5 and the colistin resistance gene mcr-1 Whole-genome sequencing revealed that blaNDM-5 and mcr-1 were located on a 46-kb IncX3 plasmid and a 32-kb IncX4 plasmid, respectively. The two plasmids can transfer together with a low fitness cost, which might explain the presence of various STs of E. coli coharboring blaNDM-5 and mcr-1.