Helicosporidium sp. infection in a California kingsnake (Lampropeltis californiae): Spillover of a pathogen of invertebrates to a vertebrate host.

Helicosporidium is a genus of nonphotosynthetic, green algae in the family Chlorellaceae, closely related to Prototheca. It is a known pathogen of invertebrates, and its occurrence in vertebrates has not been documented. A captive, 10-month-old, male, albino California kingsnake (Lampropeltis californiae) was submitted for necropsy. Gross examination revealed hemorrhagic laryngitis and a red mottled liver. Histologically, intravascular, intramonocytic/macrophagic and extracellular, eukaryotic organisms were observed in all tissues. These organisms stained positive with Grocott-Gomori methenamine silver and periodic acid-Schiff and were variably acid-fast and gram-positive. Ultrastructural analysis revealed approximately 4 µm vegetative multiplication forms and cysts with 3 parallel ovoid cells and a helically coiled filamentous cell. A polymerase chain reaction with primers targeting Prototheca, amplicon sequencing, and Bayesian phylogenetic analysis confirmed it clustered within Helicosporidium sp. with 100% posterior probability. The genus Helicosporidium was found to nest within the genus Prototheca, forming a clade with Prototheca wickerhamii with 80% posterior probability.

Systemic Caryospora-like coccidiosis in a clutch of hatchling red-eared slider turtles (Trachemys scripta elegans).

Caryospora-like organisms (CLOs) form a clade of at least 11 genotypes of related coccidia that can cause epizootic mortality in marine turtles. The biology, transmission, host species range, and host cell tropism of these organisms are still largely unknown. The goal of this study was to characterize the host cell tropism, pathologic and ultrastructural features, and phylogeny associated with the first report of a mortality event due to CLO in the freshwater red-eared slider turtle (Trachemys scripta elegans). Sudden mortalities within a clutch of captive-raised red-eared slider hatchlings (n = 8) were recorded, and deceased animals had severe segmental to diffuse, transmural, fibrinonecrotic enterocolitis and multifocal to coalescing hepatic necrosis, among other lesions associated with numerous intracytoplasmic developing stages of intralesional coccidia. Among the different developmental stages, merozoites were ultrastructurally characterized by an apical complex. A pan-apicomplexan polymerase chain reaction (PCR) yielded a 347 bp-amplicon matching the Schellackia/Caryospora-like clade with 99.1% identity to the US3 strain from green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) and 99.1% identity to Schellackia sp. Isolate OC116. Surviving hatchlings were treated with toltrazuril sulfone (ponazuril) but were subsequently euthanized due to the risk of spreading the parasite to other chelonids in the collection. The ponazuril-treated hatchlings (n = 4) had mild proliferative anterior enteritis, with few intraepithelial coccidia in one hatchling confirmed as CLO by PCR. This is the first report of Caryospora-like coccidiosis in non-cheloniid turtles, highlighting the relevance of this disease as an emerging highly pathogenic intestinal and extra-intestinal form of coccidiosis of turtles with potential cross-species infectivity.

Proliferative strongyloidiasis in a colony of colubrid snakes.

Strongyloides are small rhabditid nematodes primarily associated with enteric disease in a variety of animal species, including reptiles. Strongyloides spp life stages were associated with a disease outbreak in a large breeding colony of snakes. Multiple Pantherophis and Lampropeltis colubrids exhibited respiratory distress, anorexia, stomatitis, facial deformation, and waning body condition that resulted in death or necessitated euthanasia. Postmortem examinations of 13 snakes revealed epithelial hyperplasia and inflammation of the alimentary and respiratory tracts associated with varying numbers of adult and larval nematodes and embryonated or larvated ova. In a subset of snakes, aberrant nematode migration was also observed in the eye, genitourinary system, coelom, and vasculature. Histomorphology and gross examination of parasitic adult female nematodes from host tissues were consistent with a Strongyloides spp. Sedimented fecal material from 101/160 (63%) snakes housed in the affected facility was positive for nematodes and/or larvated ova. Polymerase chain reaction amplification and sequencing of portions of the 18S and 28S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (RNA) genes and the internal transcribed spacer region of adult female parasites and positive fecal samples supported the diagnosis of strongyloidiasis. Strongyloides spp possess a unique life cycle capable of alternating between parasitic (homogonic) and free-living (heterogonic) stages, resulting in the production of directly infective larvae. Commonly utilized husbandry practices in reptile collections can amplify the numbers of infective larvae generated in the captive environment, increasing the risk for rhabditid hyperinfections. This report documents morbidity, mortality, and non-enteric disease manifestations due to Strongyloides hyperinfections in a captive colubrid snake colony.

USE OF VISCOELASTIC COAGULATION TESTING IN MEGACHIROPTERA (PTEROPUS HYPOMELANUS AND PTEROPUS VAMPYRUS) REVEALS HIGH VARIABILITY IN CLOT KINETICS.

Megachiroptera is a mammalian suborder that includes old world fruit bats. Common clinical problems among captive Megachiroptera, such as liver disease (e.g., iron storage disease), kidney disease (e.g., protein-losing nephropathy), and heart disease (e.g., dilated cardiomyopathy), carry elevated risk for hemostatic derangements. The assessment of viscoelastic coagulation assays, however, has not yet been reported in bats. The main objective of the study was to describe viscoelastography data using the Viscoelastic Coagulation Monitor (VCM) Vet in captive large flying foxes (Pteropus vampyrus) (n = 20) and variable flying foxes (Pteropus hypomelanus) (n = 10). Additional objectives were to compare viscoelastic and clotting parameters (1) between healthy P. vampyrus and P. hypomelanus bats and (2) between untreated bats and those treated with meloxicam or aspirin, and (3) to examine relationships between activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) and potentially homologous viscoelastic parameters clotting time (CT) and clot formation time (CFT). The results showed marked variability among clinically normal bats. The intrinsic pathway, as measured by aPTT, had prolonged times compared with most terrestrial mammals, but similar times to birds, marine mammals, and sea turtles. A search of P. vampyrus genome found stop codons present in two exons of the factor XI gene; alterations in factor XI expression would be expected to alter intrinsic coagulation. Because of the high variability, no statistically significant findings were noted in the secondary objectives. Correlation between aPTT and CT or CFT was not strong (rs = 0.406 or 0.192, respectively). The results from this study suggest that clot kinetics vary widely among Megachiroptera when using the VCM Vet with untreated blood. A prolonged intrinsic coagulation pathway, as has been found in other megachiropteran species, and activation of the extrinsic coagulation pathway during venipuncture may be responsible for the inconsistent results.

NOVEL SIMPLEXVIRUS (SIMPLEXVIRUS DOLICHOTINEALPHA1) ASSOCIATED WITH FATALITY IN FOUR PATAGONIAN MARA (DOLICHOTIS PATAGONUM).

Four of seven Patagonian maras (Dolichotis patagonum) at a zoological institution developed acute neurologic signs that progressed to tetraparesis and death. All affected were young adult females (10 mon-5 yr old) that presented over 11 d. Clinical signs were rapidly progressive and unresponsive to supportive therapies. Two of the four individuals were found deceased 4 d after hospitalization. Two individuals were euthanized due to poor prognosis and decline after 6 and 8 d, respectively. Simultaneously, an additional mara developed mild and self-resolving clinical signs, including a kyphotic gait and paraparesis. On gross examination, there were widespread petechiae and ecchymoses of the skeletal muscle, myocardium, skin, pericardium, urinary bladder mucosa, and spinal cord. On histopathology, all animals had necrotizing myelitis and rhombencephalitis, with intranuclear viral inclusions in three individuals. Electron microscopy confirmed herpesviral replication and assembly complexes in neurons and oligodendrocytes. Consensus PCR performed on spinal cord, brainstem, or cerebellum revealed a novel Simplexvirus most closely related to Simplexvirus leporidalpha 4. The virus was amplified and sequenced and is referred to as Simplexvirus dolichotinealpha1. It is unknown whether this virus is endemic in Patagonian mara or whether it represents an aberrant host species. Clinicians should be aware of this virus and its potential to cause severe, rapidly progressive, life-threatening disease in this species.

SCHIZANGIELLA INFECTIONS IN AN EASTERN RATSNAKE (PANTHEROPHIS ALLEGHANIENSIS) AND A TIMBER RATTLESNAKE (CROTALUS HORRIDUS).

This report describes Schizangiella infections in colubrid and viperid snakes. A captive eastern ratsnake (Pantherophis alleghaniensis) was presented for a large intraoral mass associated with the mandible. The mass was debulked and histologic examination revealed severe, granulomatous stomatitis with intralesional fungi exhibiting morphologic features consistent with Schizangiella serpentis. PCR and sequencing of affected tissues confirmed S. serpentis. Because of declining health, the ratsnake was euthanized and postmortem examination identified a disseminated S. serpentis infection involving the skeletal musculature, lung, kidney, mesentery, and mandible. A wild-caught timber rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus) was presented for cutaneous lesions, weakness, and lethargy and later died. Postmortem examination revealed a mass-like structure in the esophagus characterized by high numbers of Schizangiella-like fungi associated with extensive granulomatous inflammation; the snake also had cutaneous mycosis suggestive of ophidiomycosis. This is the first report to document the unique morphologic features of S. serpentis in tissues and the presentation of schizangiellosis in snakes. Schizangiellosis should be considered as a differential diagnosis for nodular lesions involving the oral cavity and/or the gastrointestinal tract of snakes.

Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of intramuscular alfaxalone in central bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps): effect of injection site.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the pharmacodynamic effects and pharmacokinetics of a single intramuscular (IM) injection of alfaxalone in central bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) when injected at a cranial versus a caudal site. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, masked, randomized crossover study. ANIMALS: A total of 13 healthy bearded dragons weighing 0.48 ± 0.1 kg. METHODS: Alfaxalone (10 mg kg-1) was administered IM to 13 bearded dragons in the triceps muscle (cranial treatment) or the quadriceps muscle (caudal treatment) separated by 4 weeks. Pharmacodynamic variables included movement score, muscle tone score and righting reflex. Blood was obtained from the caudal tail vein using a sparse sampling methodology. Plasma alfaxalone concentrations were determined using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, and pharmacokinetic analysis was performed using nonlinear mixed-effects modeling. Differences in variables between injection sites were analyzed using a nonparametric Wilcoxon signed-rank test for paired data with significance set at p ≤ 0.05. RESULTS: Time to loss of righting reflex score was not different, median (interquartile range), between cranial and caudal treatments [8 (5-11) and 8 (4-12) minutes, respectively, p = 0.72]. Time to recovery of righting reflex was also not different between cranial and caudal treatments [80 (44-112) and 64 (56-104) minutes, respectively, p = 0.75]. Plasma alfaxalone concentrations were not significantly different between treatments. The population estimate (95% confidence intervals) for volume of distribution per fraction absorbed was 1.0 (0.79-1.20) L kg-1, clearance per fraction absorbed was 9.6 (7.6-11.6) mL minute-1 kg-1, absorption rate constant was 2.3 (1.9-2.8) minute-1 and elimination half-life was 71.9 (52.7-91.1) minutes. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Regardless of the injection site, IM alfaxalone (10 mg kg-1) produced reliable chemical restraint in central bearded dragons, appropriate for nonpainful diagnostic procedures or anesthetic premedication.

IDENTIFICATION AND RETROSPECTIVE EVALUATION OF A FILARIOID NEMATODE SPECIES IN MANAGED GRASSHOPPER SPARROWS (AMMODRAMUS SAVANNARUM).

The grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum) is a species of ground-dwelling passerine bird with 12 different subspecies. The Florida subspecies (Ammodramus savannarum floridanus) is classified as federally endangered, with the most common threats including habitat loss, nest predation, and floods. A managed breeding program was established at White Oak Conservation (Yulee, FL) in 2015 with eastern grasshopper sparrows (Ammodramus savannarum pratensis) as a model for breeding Florida grasshopper sparrows as part of an assurance colony. A filarioid parasite species (Aproctella sp.) was characterized by PCR after identification by blood films and postmortem examinations of both subspecies housed at White Oak Conservation. This Aproctella species was distinct from others with available sequence. Records from 157 eastern and Florida grasshopper sparrows were reviewed, and correlations between presence of filariasis and subspecies, sex, body condition score, and presence of systemic isosporosis, squamous metaplasia, coelomitis, airsacculitis, or a combination of conditions were investigated. Twenty-nine (18.5%) birds (13 of 71 Florida grasshopper sparrows; 16 of 86 eastern grasshopper sparrows) were positive for filariasis by blood film review, grossly or by tissue imprint at postmortem examination, or histologically. Filariasis was significantly correlated with systemic isosporosis, coelomitis, and airsacculitis; was not correlated with subspecies, sex, or squamous metaplasia; and had a questionable correlation with body condition score. This report provides evidence that this Aproctella species has potential to contribute to morbidity and mortality in the grasshopper sparrow. This information will be helpful for implementing effective measures against suspected vectors and for the development of best practice strategies for the health management of the species in breeding programs.

Diffuse large B cell lymphoma and a novel gammaherpesvirus in northern elephant seals Mirounga angustirostris.

Two emaciated male northern elephant seal (NES) Mirounga angustirostris pups were admitted to The Marine Mammal Center (Sausalito, California, USA) and treated for malnutrition. Complete blood counts showed a progressive moderate to marked leukocytosis characterized by a predominance of large monomorphic mononuclear cells of probable lymphoid origin, frequently with flower-shaped nuclei. Both seals were euthanized due to suspected lymphoid neoplasia. At necropsy, most lymph nodes in both pups were markedly enlarged, some with distinct white nodules, the spleens were diffusely enlarged, and the intestinal mucosae were thickened. Histopathologic features consistent with disseminated large cell lymphoma were identified to varying degrees of severity in lymph nodes, bone marrow, liver, tonsils, spleen, liver, intestines, kidneys, lower urinary tract, and several other organs. Immunohistochemical staining of neoplastic cells was most consistent with B lymphocyte origin, with most cells staining positively for Pax 5 and CD20 with admixed small CD3-positive T lymphocytes and CD204-positive macrophages. PCR and sequencing identified a novel gammaherpesvirus, herein called miroungine gammaherpesvirus 3, from affected tissues. This virus is in a clade outside of named genera that utilize hosts in the suborder Caniformia. The present study is the first description of diffuse large B cell lymphoma with leukemic manifestation and concomitant detection of a novel gammaherpesvirus in free-living NESs. Further research regarding the prevalence of this new gammaherpesvirus and its associated pathogenesis in this species is indicated.

Physiological effects of capture and short-term captivity in an invasive snake species, the Burmese python (Python bivittatus) in Florida.

It is important to evaluate the role of captivity as a potential stressor. An understanding of stress responses to capture and transition to captivity may inform the limitations of laboratory studies on wild animals, aid in understanding the consequences of introducing animals into captive environments, and help predict which species may be successful invasives. We investigated physiological effects of captivity by comparing at-capture blood variables in wild Burmese pythons (Python bivittatus) in Florida to pythons recently brought into captivity (1-109 days). We conducted an acute restraint test by collecting samples at baseline (immediately at handling) and one hour post-restraint across wild field-sampled (n = 19) and recently-captive (n = 33) pythons to evaluate fluctuations in plasma corticosterone, bacterial killing ability, antibody response, leukogram, and serpentovirus infection. We observed higher baseline plasma corticosterone and monocytes in recently captive compared to wild snakes, which both subsided in snakes held for a longer time in captivity, and a mild decrease in lymphocytes in the middle of the captivity period. Functional immunity and viral infection were not affected by captivity, and pythons maintained restraint-induced responses in corticosterone, heterophil to lymphocyte ratio, and monocyte counts throughout captivity. Prevalence for serpentovirus was 50%, though infection status was related to sampling date rather than captivity, indicating that viral infection may be seasonal. The history of Burmese python as a common captive animal for research and pet trade, as well as its general resilience to effects of capture and short-term captivity, may contribute to its invasion success in Florida.

Evaluation of a probe hybridization quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay for Cryptosporidium serpentis in eastern indigo snakes (Drymarchon couperi).

A probe-hybridization quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay specific for Cryptosporidium serpentis (qPCR) has been developed and shown to be extremely sensitive in the laboratory, but clinical sensitivity and specificity for this test are lacking. To approximate the sensitivity and specificity of the C. serpentis qPCR, the medical records from a captive snake colony were reviewed, and between November 2015 and June 2021, 63 eastern indigo snakes (Drymarchon couperi) were necropsied. Of these 63 snakes, 11 had qPCR performed on gastric biopsies collected at the time of necropsy, 8 had qPCR performed on samples collected by gastric swab within 35 days of necropsy, and 34 had qPCR performed on samples collected by cloacal swab within 84 days of necropsy. The qPCR results were then compared to the post-mortem histological findings, where all three sampling techniques had a 100% specificity. The sensitivity was highest in samples collected at necropsy (100%, CI: 63.06 - 100%) followed by the ante-mortem testing: gastric swab (87.50%, CI: 42.13 - 99.64%) and cloacal swab (66.67%, CI: 44.68 - 84.37%).

In vitro antifungal susceptibility of Fusarium species and Aspergillus fumigatus cultured from eleven horses with fungal keratitis.

PURPOSE: To examine the relationship between Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MICs) and response to therapy of 6 Fusarium spp. and 5 Aspergillus fumigatus isolated from equine ulcerative keratitis cases. PROCEDURE: Fungi were identified by morphology and Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with sequencing and evaluated at the University of Texas Fungal Testing Laboratory for susceptibility to three azole antifungals (miconazole, voriconazole, posaconazole), natamycin, and two echinocandins (anidulafungin, caspofungin). A Mann-Whitney rank sum test was used for the comparison of time to heal between infections of different fungal genera and in vitro susceptibility to the drug administered. RESULTS: Fusarium spp. were resistant to azole antifungals in 6/6 cases (100%). Fusarium spp. were susceptible to echinocandins and natamycin in all cases. A. fumigatus was resistant to anidulafungin in 1/5 cases (20%) and posaconazole in 1/5 cases (20%) The remainder of A. fumigatus isolates were susceptible to all antifungal agents tested. Fusarium isolates were treated with antifungals to which they were not susceptible; however, all cases of A. fumigatus were treated with antifungals to which they were susceptible. All Fusarium cases and A. fumigatus cases experienced clinical resolution, regardless of surgical intervention. There was no statistical correlation between fungal genus and time to heal (p < .082). CONCLUSIONS: The in vitro susceptibility indicated that all cases of Fusarium spp. were resistant to azole antifungal drugs which were used as treatment. Clinical outcomes, however, showed that all cases healed despite resistance to antifungals.

PULMONARY AND COELOMIC MYCOSES DUE TO METARHIZIUM AND BEAUVERIA SPECIES IN REPTILES.

This report documents cases of fatal pulmonary mycosis caused by entomopathogenic fungi in the genera Metarhizium and Beauveria (Order Hypocreales) in a loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta), a Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis), two gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus), a Cuvier's dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus palpebrosus), a false gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii), a green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas), and a Kemp's ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempii), and a case of granulomatous coelomitis in a hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata). Fungi identified in these cases included Beauveria bassiana, Beauveria brongniartii, Metarhizium anisopliae, Metarhizium robertsii, and one case of infection by a novel Metarhizium species. The animals were either housed at zoos or brought into rehabilitation from the wild. Although the majority of animals had comorbidities, the fungal infections were believed to be the primary cause of death. Fungal susceptibility testing was performed on two Beauveria spp. isolates, and revealed lower minimum inhibitory concentrations for itraconazole and voriconazole when compared to terbinafine and fluconazole. This case series demonstrates that a variety of reptile species from different orders are vulnerable to infection with Metarhizium, and multiple species of sea turtle are susceptible to infection with Beauveria.

Angiostrongylus cantonensis (rat lungworm) in Florida, USA: current status.

Angiostrongylus cantonensis has been found in Florida, USA, from the panhandle in the north to Miami and surrounding areas in the southern parts of the state, in both definitive and intermediate hosts in a limited studies completed in 2015. Additional studies have identified this parasite in a variety of intermediate hosts, both native and non-native gastropod species, with new host species recorded. Many areas in Florida with higher A. cantonensis prevalence were those with a high human population density, which suggests it is a matter of time before human infections occur in Florida. Case reports in the state currently involve non-human primates and include a gibbon and orangutan in Miami. Here, we report the current status of A. cantonensis in the state, as well as the infection in a capuchin monkey and presumptive infection in a red ruffed lemur in Gainesville, Florida.

Shell Lesions Associated With Emydomyces testavorans Infection in Freshwater Aquatic Turtles.

A newly described onygenalean fungus, Emydomyces testavorans, has been isolated from ulcerative shell and skin lesions of freshwater aquatic chelonians. To investigate the shell lesions associated with infection and determine if any lesional features were unique to E. testavorans, tissues from turtles housed in zoological institutions (n = 45) in the United States and free-living turtles (n = 5) submitted for diagnostic biopsy or necropsy were examined. Free-living turtles were from geographically distinct habitats in Florida (n = 1) and Washington (n = 4) at the time of sampling. Histologic shell sections were evaluated for the presence or absence of specific lesional features. Infection with E. testavorans was evaluated in all cases by screening GMS (Grocott-Gomori's methenamine silver)-stained histologic sections for the presence of morphologically consistent fungi and by quantitative PCR (polymerase chain reaction) on representative frozen tissue or formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded sections. Additionally, culture was performed for 15 cases with available fresh/frozen tissue. In total, there were 17 PCR-confirmed E. testavorans cases, 29 cases with morphologically consistent fungi on GMS-stained sections, and 21 cases of shell lesions without histologic or molecular evidence of E. testavorans infection. Epithelial inclusion cysts, defined as cystic structures within the dermis lined by keratinized stratified squamous epithelium and containing necrotic bone and keratin debris, were significantly (P < .01) associated with E. testavorans infection. Other significantly associated shell lesions included squamous metaplasia, hyperkeratosis, inflammation, and osteonecrosis (P < .05). This study identified characteristic shell lesions associated with E. testavorans infection. Further studies to prove causality are needed.

Retrospective analysis of ocular disease in a population of captive pteropodid bats, 2003-2020.

OBJECTIVE: To perform retrospective analysis of captive pteropodid bats presented to the University of Florida for ocular or adnexal disease from 2003-2020. ANIMALS STUDIED: Twenty-four individuals from seven species were included. PROCEDURES: Records were analyzed for disease process, methods of treatment, and surgical techniques and complications. RESULTS: The most frequently reported abnormality was corneal disease (79%), followed by cataracts (54%), and uveitis (42%). Corneal disease was primarily attributed to either trauma or exposure keratitis secondary to buphthalmia. The majority of uveitis appeared to be lens-induced. Five cases (21%) of glaucoma were reported, all of which accompanied lens luxation. Of the seven enucleations performed, six had post-operative complications (85.7%), including swelling at the surgical site, seroma formation, and bacterial infection. There was no significant relationship between age and trauma, age and cataract formation, sex and trauma, or species and cataract formation. CONCLUSIONS: The most common underlying cause of ocular pathology in these cases was trauma. While the bats tolerated topical and systemic treatment well, individual temperament must be taken into account when developing treatment plans, and prevention of injury is the most effective management strategy.

THE USE OF INTRADERMAL ALLERGY TESTING FOR ALLERGIC DERMATITIS IN PTEROPID BATS AND TREATMENT WITH ALLERGEN SPECIFIC IMMUNOTHERAPY: A CASE SERIES.

This case series describes the diagnosis of allergic dermatitis and management with allergen-specific immunotherapy (ASIT) based on intradermal allergy testing (IDAT) and adjunctive medical therapy in six pteropid bats; five large flying foxes (Pteropus vampyrus); and one variable flying fox (Pteropus hypomelanus). The cases ranged from 2 to 15 yr of age at the time of presentation. Clinical signs varied between individuals and included moist ulcerative cutaneous lesions in nonhaired skin, blepharoconjunctivitis, alopecia, and pruritus. All bats underwent IDAT under general anesthesia, and reactive allergens included a mixture of grasses, trees, weeds, and biting insects. Three of the six cases (50%) had reformulation of the ASIT before control of clinical signs was seen, and two bats were treated with the addition of oclacitinib (Apoquel). Severe adverse effects were not identified; however, one bat had self-limiting swelling at the immunotherapy injection site. All six cases showed improvement of clinical signs and perceived comfort level, including in subsequent allergy seasons.

Divergent bornaviruses from Australian carpet pythons with neurological disease date the origin of extant Bornaviridae prior to the end-Cretaceous extinction.

Tissue samples from Australian carpet pythons (Morelia spilota) with neurological disease were screened for viruses using next-generation sequencing. Coding complete genomes of two bornaviruses were identified with the gene order 3'-N-X-P-G-M-L, representing a transposition of the G and M genes compared to other bornaviruses and most mononegaviruses. Use of these viruses to search available vertebrate genomes enabled recognition of further endogenous bornavirus-like elements (EBLs) in diverse placental mammals, including humans. Codivergence patterns and shared integration sites revealed an ancestral laurasiatherian EBLG integration (77 million years ago [MYA]) and a previously identified afrotherian EBLG integration (83 MYA). The novel python bornaviruses clustered more closely with these EBLs than with other exogenous bornaviruses, suggesting that these viruses diverged from previously known bornaviruses prior to the end-Cretaceous (K-Pg) extinction, 66 MYA. It is possible that EBLs protected mammals from ancient bornaviral disease, providing a selective advantage in the recovery from the K-Pg extinction. A degenerate PCR primer set was developed to detect a highly conserved region of the bornaviral polymerase gene. It was used to detect 15 more genetically distinct bornaviruses from Australian pythons that represent a group that is likely to contain a number of novel species.

Orchard grass allergy in an African spur-thighed tortoise (Centrochelys sulcata) confirmed via intradermal allergen testing and provocation testing.

The humoral immune system of reptiles is not well-studied. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this case report describes the first case of a type I allergic conjunctivitis associated with orchard grass in an African spur-thighed tortoise (Centrochelys sulcata) supported by intradermal allergen testing and provocative testing. Further studies are needed to better characterize allergic reactions in reptiles.

Le système immunitaire humoral des reptiles n'est pas bien étudié. A la connaissance des auteurs, cet article décrit le premier cas de conjonctivite associé au dactyle pelotonné chez une tortue sillonée (Centrochelys sulcata) confirmé par tests allergéniques intradermiques et test de provocation. Des études supplémentaires sont nécessaires pour mieux caractériser les réactions allergiques chez les reptiles.

El sistema inmunológico humoral de los reptiles no está bien estudiado. A entender de los autores, este artículo describe el primer caso de una conjuntivitis alérgica tipo I asociada con dáctilo (Dactylis glomerata) en una tortuga africana (Centrochelys sulcata) basado en pruebas de alérgenos intradérmicos y pruebas de provocación. Se necesitan más estudios para caracterizar mejor las reacciones alérgicas en reptiles.

O sistema imune humoral de répteis ainda não é bem estudado. De acordo com os conhecimentos dos autores, este relato descreve o primeiro caso de conjuntivite alérgica do tipo I associada a grama (Dactilys glomerata) em uma tartaruga-grega africana (Centrochelys sulcata) baseado em teste alérgico intradérmico e teste de provocação. Mais estudos são necessários para melhor se caracterizar as reações alérgicas em répteis.

PREVALENCE OF BOX TURTLE ADENOVIRUS IN EASTERN BOX TURTLES (TERRAPENE CAROLINA CAROLINA) PRESENTED TO A WILDLIFE REHABILITATION CENTER IN VIRGINIA, USA.

Eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) are a native North American species with a declining population trend that may be attributable to habitat fragmentation, vehicle collisions, and disease. Adenoviral infections can cause significant morbidity and mortality in captive reptile populations. Adenoviruses have been documented in box turtles, but their occurrence and impact in wild populations are unknown. A disease survey was performed at The Wildlife Center of Virginia, USA, to assess the prevalence of box turtle adenovirus (BTAdV) in wild eastern box turtles and evaluate potential associations with clinical disease. Swabs from the oral cavity, including the choanal slit, and the cloaca were collected from 106 eastern box turtles from July 2015 through June 2016. The quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) primer detected both ornate box turtle adenovirus 1 and eastern box turtle adenovirus. The resulting qPCR adenovirus prevalence was 55.7% (n = 59). Most animals (99.3%) that tested positive for BTAdV had fewer than 100 viral copies/ng DNA. This study did not find a statistically significant association between cause of admission, age, sex, outcome, and BTAdV qPCR status. However, the probability of BTAdV detection was 1.5 times higher in rehabilitation turtles compared with wild turtles (P = 0.01). Albumin was significantly lower in qPCR BTAdV-positive turtles (P = 0.007). Hypoalbuminemia is not generally associated with adenovirus infections in other species, and no obvious clinical cause for this abnormality was identified. The results of this study suggest that eastern box turtles may harbor BTAdV infections at low levels and that infection is rarely associated with clinical disease, potentially identifying BTAdV as a host-adapted pathogen. Future studies should focus on this pathogen's ability to induce clinical disease and its potential impact on recovery efforts for this species.