Human Trafficking: A Guide to Identification and Approach for the Emergency Physician.

Human trafficking is a significant human rights problem that is often associated with psychological and physical violence. There is no demographic that is spared from human trafficking. Traffickers maintain control of victims through physical, sexual, and emotional violence and manipulation. Because victims of trafficking seek medical attention for the medical and psychological consequences of assault and neglected health conditions, emergency clinicians are in a unique position to recognize victims and intervene. Evaluation of possible trafficking victims is challenging because patients who have been exploited rarely self-identify. This article outlines the clinical approach to the identification and treatment of a potential victim of human trafficking in the emergency department. Emergency practitioners should maintain a high index of suspicion when evaluating patients who appear to be at risk for abuse and violence, and assess for specific indicators of trafficking. Potential victims should be evaluated with a multidisciplinary and patient-centered technique. Furthermore, emergency practitioners should be aware of national and local resources to guide the approach to helping identified victims. Having established protocols for victim identification, care, and referrals can greatly facilitate health care providers' assisting this population.

Resident Supervision and Patient Safety: Do Different Levels of Resident Supervision Affect the Rate of Morbidity and Mortality Cases?

BACKGROUND: In our academic emergency department, our senior residents lead their own patient care team, known as the red team (RT). Attending physicians are responsible for managing their own team (AT) and precepting the senior resident's cases. OBJECTIVE: We hypothesized that the RT would have the same number of morbidity and mortality (M&M) cases and similar numbers of adverse outcomes as the AT. We also hypothesized that there would be no increase in M&M cases during the first quarter of every academic year. METHODS: We obtained data from M&M cases from 2009-2013, including month and year of patient visit, standard of care code (SoCC), and whether the patient was seen by the RT or an AT. Data were analyzed using a χ(2) test comparing expected outcomes with observed outcomes. RESULTS: There was a total of 117 M&M cases during the study period with a SoCC ≥ 3; 76 cases were AT and 41 cases were RT. There was no statistically significant difference between expected and observed number of cases. Mean RT and AT SoCCs were 4.03 and 4.23, respectively. There was no statistically significant difference between the two groups for SoCC. Mean SoCC was not significantly different for the first quarter of the year. CONCLUSIONS: We found that our patient care model did not lead to an increased number of M&M cases and RT cases were not associated with worse outcomes overall. Additionally, there was no increased rate of M&M cases in the beginning of the academic year.

Increased rates of rapid point-of-care HIV testing using patient care technicians to perform tests in the ED.

BACKGROUND: Various emergency department (ED) HIV testing models are reported in the literature but may not all be sustainable. We sought to determine whether changing an ED rapid HIV testing program from counselor-based to ED technician-based resulted in more testing. METHODS: We evaluated data from an ED rapid HIV testing program. Triage nurses offered testing to patients. In 2009, counselors performed rapid testing weekdays from 10:00 am to 6:00 pm. In 2010, ED technicians were trained to perform the test and replaced counselors. We compared the numbers of tests performed during the same 6-month periods in 2009 and 2010. Study personnel abstracted results through medical record review. RESULTS: A total of 241 oral tests were performed in 2009 compared with 1483 in 2010, representing slightly more than a 6-fold increase. In 2010, there was a steady increase in testing month by month. Incorporating patient volume, testing rates increased from 1.3% to 8.1%. Oral testing yielded no positive test results in 2009, but 7 individuals (0.47%) tested newly positive during the testing period of 2010. Of those with a documented CD4 count within 100 days of the positive result, 4 of 5 had CD4 counts less than 200. CONCLUSIONS: We present a novel approach to HIV testing using existing staff within the ED. This new ED technician-based model led to large increases in rates of testing.

Patterns in computed tomography utilization among emergency physicians in an urban, academic emergency department.

We sought to determine if CT utilization rates varied by characteristics of the physician. A chart review was performed at an urban academic emergency department (ED) to identify all the CT scans ordered and patients seen for subjects 21 years of age and older by physicians between January 2001 and December 2008. "Years of experience" was defined as years of practice after residency. Various experience cutoffs were determined a priori. Physicians were labeled "academic" if they had reduced clinical hours for academic duties and "clinical" if they were physicians without "protected time." We categorized physicians as "high users" (top quartiles) and "low users" (bottom quartiles), and compared utilization rates from 2001 to 2003 to utilization rates from 2005 to 2007. There were 280 physician-years of practice, with an average experience of 6.1 years. When comparing groups of physicians with more or less than 3, 5, 10, and 15 years of experience, there were no statistically significant differences between the number of CT scans per 1,000 visits (p = 0.85; p = 0.21; p = 0.57; p = 0.08, respectively). Comparison between clinical and academic physicians yielded no differences (clinical = 98.4, academic = 104.2, p = 0.10). Low users ordered 78 CT scans per 1,000 patient visits (95 % CI 76.6-78.5), as compared to the high users that ordered 135 CT scans per 1,000 patient visits (95 % CI 131.8-139.0). We found that all of physicians stayed within their quartiles except one. While there was substantial variation among CT utilization rates by physicians at this urban emergency department, our data shows no differences between physicians with more or less clinical experience and no change in individual utilization patterns during the study period.

Computed tomography utilization rates after the placement of a scanner in an emergency department: a single-center experience.

The convenience of a computed tomography (CT) scanner in the emergency department (ED) may impact utilization rates. Our primary aim was to determine the rate of utilization before and after the placement of an ED CT scanner. Secondary aims were to determine the rate of utilization by anatomic region and during a 5-month period when the ED scanner was unavailable. We performed an electronic chart review of our ED with an annual census of 70,000 patients. We identified all patients over the age of 21 who had a CT scan performed from January 2008 to October 2010. Predetermined data elements were extracted by trained, hypothesis-blinded abstractors. Comparisons overall and within scan subtype were performed using seasonal matching. We found a CT utilization rate of 114 per 1,000 patient visits before and 139 per 1,000 patient visits after the placement of a CT scanner in the ED (p<0.0001). Linear regression analysis found a line with a slope of ß=0.114 (95 % CI=0.107-0.121) and an R2 of 0.508. CT rates increased in the following regions: head CTs by 14 per 1,000 visits (p<0.0001); neck CTs by 3 per 1,000 visits (p<0.0001); abdomen/pelvis CTs by 4 per 1,000 visits (p=0.0015); "other" CTs by 2 per 1,000 visits (p<0.0001). Increased rates of chest and facial CTs approached significance with p values of 0.05. During the 5-month downtime, utilization remained unchanged at 141 per 1,000 visits (p=0.38). Overall CT utilization increased after the placement of a scanner in the ED. Most subtypes of scan increased. Utilization was unchanged during a period of ED scanner unavailability, suggesting that increased utilization may be difficult to reverse.

Magnitude of D-dimer matters for diagnosing pulmonary embolus.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to determine whether the magnitude of the D-dimer correlates with a higher likelihood of pulmonary embolus (PE). METHODS: We performed an electronic chart review at our academic, tertiary care center, annual emergency department (ED) census greater than 100000. All patients with a chest computed tomographic (CT) scan with intravenous contrast and an elevated D-dimer level obtained in the ED between January 2001 and July 2008 were identified. Specific, predetermined, predefined data elements including sex, age, D-dimer level, and final ED diagnosis were recorded by a hypothesis-blinded extractor using a preformatted data form. D-dimer level less than 0.58 µg/mL constitutes the normal laboratory reference range for our turbidometric D-dimer assay. Data were analyzed using standard statistical methods, and a linear regression analysis was performed for correlation analysis of D-dimer and diagnosis of PE. RESULTS: We identified 544 subjects who had both a chest CT scan performed and an elevated D-dimer level obtained in the ED. Fifty-eight subjects (10.7%; mean D-dimer, 4.9 µg/mL) were diagnosed with PE, and 486 (89.3%; mean D-dimer, 2.0) did not have a PE. The percentages of PE diagnoses for D-dimers in the ranges 0.58 to 1.0, 1.0 to 2.0, 2.0 to 5.0, 5.0 to 20.0, and greater than 20.0 (n = 11) were 3.6%, 8.0%, 16.2%, 35.3%, and 45.5%, respectively. The positive predictive value of PE for D-dimer level cutoffs of greater than 0.58, greater than 1.0, greater than 2.0, greater than 5.0, and greater than 20.0 was 10.7%, 14.6%, 22.2%, 37.8%, and 45.5%, respectively. Increasing D-dimer values were strongly correlated with the presence of PE (odds ratio, 1.1685 per stratum; P < .001). CONCLUSION: Increasing magnitude of D-dimer correlates with increasing likelihood of PE diagnosed by CT angiography.

Head computed tomography utilization and intracranial hemorrhage rates.

Utilization of computed tomography scans (CTs) has increased dramatically in emergency departments in the USA. This study aimed to retrospectively determine the yield of CTs among all patients that received a CT of the head from 2001 to 2007, which is adjusted for patient volume. For secondary endpoints, we examined the yield of CT of the head for the following hemorrhages: (1) intracerebral, (2) subarachnoid, (3) subdural, and (4) epidural. In 2001, 3.3 head CTs were performed per 100 patients seen. This increased by 60 % to 5.2 per 100 in 2007 (p = 0.005, R (2) = 0.82). This correlated with a nonsignificant decrease in the rate of intracranial hemorrhage found by CT from 3.6 per 100 CTs in 2001 (95 % confidence interval (CI) = 2.7-4.5) to 3.0 per 100 in 2007 (95 % CI = 2.5-3.6). There were no significant differences in "positive" rates for each subgroup of intracranial hemorrhage. Our study found that the utilization of head CTs increased dramatically, but there was a corresponding increase in the number of positive findings so that the overall yield of head CTs from 2001 to 2007 remained relatively constant.

Difficulties with gum elastic bougie intubation in an academic emergency department.

BACKGROUND: The difficulties with gum elastic bougie (GEB) use in the emergency department (ED) have never been studied prospectively. OBJECTIVES: To determine the most common difficulties associated with endotracheal intubation using a GEB in the ED. METHODS: We conducted a prospective, observational study of GEB practices in our two affiliated urban EDs with a 3-year residency training program and an annual census of 150,000 patients. Laryngoscopists performing a GEB-assisted intubation completed a structured data form after laryngoscopy, recording patient characteristics, grade of laryngeal view (using the modified Cormack-Lehane classification), reason for GEB use, and problems encountered. Data were analyzed using standard statistical methods and 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS: A GEB was used for 88 patients. The overall success rate was 70/88 (79.6%; 95% confidence interval [CI] 71.1-88.0%). The GEB failure rate of the first laryngoscopist was 25/88 (28.4%; 95% CI 21.0-40.3%), with the two most common reasons being: inability to insert the bougie past the hypopharynx in 13 (52%; 95% CI 32.4-71.6%) and inability to pass the endotracheal tube over the bougie in six (24%; 95% CI 7.3-40.7). CONCLUSIONS: The GEB is a helpful rescue airway device, but emergency care providers should be aware that failure rates are relatively high at a teaching institution.

Success of the gum elastic bougie as a rescue airway in the emergency department.

BACKGROUND: The gum elastic bougie (GEB) is a rescue airway device commonly found in the emergency department (ED). However, data documenting its efficacy are lacking in the emergency medicine literature. STUDY OBJECTIVES: To determine the success rate of endotracheal intubation using a GEB and the reliability of "palpable clicks" and "hold-up" in the ED setting. METHODS: The GEB was introduced at our two affiliated urban EDs with a 3-year residency training program and an annual census of 150,000. Physicians were trained in the use of the GEB before initiation of the study. Over the course of 1 year, we conducted a prospective, observational study of GEB practices in the ED. The study population included all adult patients on whom intubation was attempted with a GEB. All emergency physicians attempting intubation completed a structured data form after laryngoscopy, recording patient characteristics, grade of laryngeal view (using the modified Cormack-Lehane classification), and presence of "palpable clicks" and "hold-up." Indications for GEB use in our ED include a difficult or rescue airway and for training purposes. Data were analyzed using standard statistical methods and 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS: In our study period, there were 26 patients on whom intubation was attempted with a GEB. The overall success rate was 20/26 (76.9%; 95% confidence interval [CI] 60.7-93.1%). Among cases where the GEB was used for training purposes (all grade 1 or 2a laryngeal view), six of seven (85.7%) intubations were successful. When the GEB was used for clinically indicated purposes, 14 of 19 (73.7%; 95% CI 53.9-93.5%) intubations were successful. Palpable clicks were appreciated in 11/20 successful intubations (sensitivity 55.0%; 95% CI 33.2-76.8%); there was one false positive (specificity 80%; 95% CI 40.9-98.2%). Of 20 successful intubations, hold-up was deferred in five cases; of 15 remaining cases, hold-up was appreciated in 5/15 (sensitivity 33.3%; 95% CI 9.5-57.2%); there were no false positives (specificity 100%; 95% CI 60.7-100%). CONCLUSIONS: In our ED setting, the GEB had a success rate of 73.7% when utilized as a rescue airway after failed attempts. The characteristics of "palpable clicks" and "hold-up" were unreliable.

Computed tomography use in the adult emergency department of an academic urban hospital from 2001 to 2007.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: There is both increasing recognition and growing scrutiny of the increased utilization of computed tomography (CT) in medicine. For our primary objective, we determine and quantify the CT utilization rate in our emergency department (ED) during the last 7 years. As a secondary objective, we compare trends in utilization for various types of CT scans. METHODS: We performed an electronic chart review at our inner-city, academic ED with an annual census of 110,000 patients. We identified all patients older than 21 years who had a CT scan performed during ED management from January 2001 to December 2007. Specific, predetermined data elements (eg, subject demographics, type of CT scan) were extracted on standardized data forms by trained abstractors. We analyzed our data with standard descriptive statistics and linear regression. RESULTS: The rate of CT utilization increased steadily at approximately 10 CTs per 1,000 (95% confidence interval 7.5 to 13.6 CTs) patients annually during our study period, from 51 per 1,000 patient visits in 2001 to 106 per 1,000 in 2007. Among these CTs, chest CTs increased most, with a 6-fold increase from 1 [corrected] per 1,000 patient visits to 6 [corrected] per 1,000. Neck CTs increased by 5-fold, from 2 [corrected] per 1,000 patient visits to 10 [corrected] per 1,000 patients. Similarly, the utilization of abdomen-pelvis CTs, facial bone CTs, and head CTs increased from 13 per 1,000 to 33 per 1,000 patient visits (150%), 1 per 1,000 to 2 per 1,000 patient visits (100%), and 33 per 1,000 to 53 per 1,000 patient visits (60%), respectively. CONCLUSION: Recent CT utilization in our ED increased in all anatomic categories assessed, with chest CTs and neck CTs increasing the most, followed by abdomen-pelvis CTs, facial bone CTs, and head CTs.

Can bedside ultrasound assist in determining whether serum creatinine is elevated in cases of acute urinary retention?

BACKGROUND: There are no guidelines to determine which patients with acute urinary retention (AUR) require blood testing (i.e., serum creatinine) to assess for renal failure. OBJECTIVE: To determine if hydronephrosis on bedside ultrasound correlates with an abnormal serum creatinine (Cr) level in cases of AUR. METHODS: This was a prospective, observational study of subjects clinically diagnosed with AUR at two associated urban academic centers from October 2004 through August 2006. Emergency physicians completed a data form and performed a bedside ultrasound to determine the presence or absence of hydronephrosis. The data collected included suspected cause of AUR, amount of urinary output after Foley insertion, and blood test results. Follow-up was obtained by telephone and electronic medical record for 1 month. Standard statistics were employed. RESULTS: Among 96 enrolled subjects with AUR, 43 had a serum Cr level obtained on the initial visit, and 10 (23%; 95% confidence interval [CI] 11-36) of these had an elevated Cr (10% [95% CI 4-16] of the study cohort). The test characteristics of hydronephrosis on bedside ultrasound to detect elevation in Cr were a sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of 70%, 67%, 39%, and 88%, respectively. CONCLUSION: In cases of AUR, the prevalence of elevated creatinine is high, and hydronephrosis based on bedside ultrasonography does not correlate with elevation in creatinine.

Severe Hyperkalemia, a Case Report.

This case highlights the classic electrocardiogram (ECG) finding of a severely widened QRS complex with a sinusoidal pattern indicative of severe hyperkalemia. It also emphasizes the importance of the ECG in screening for electrolyte abnormalities and the ability to begin therapy before laboratory confirmation in the correct clinical setting. A 78-year-old male with history of end stage renal disease presented with chest pain. Findings on initial ECG allowed for rapid diagnosis and treatment before serum potassium levels were confirmed. His treatment consisted of cardiac stabilization with calcium, followed by efforts to shift potassium intracellularly with insulin and beta-agonists. Ultimately the patient was confirmed to have a severely elevated potassium level of eight mmol/L. Unfortunately, during aggressive initial management, the patient suffered a pulseless electrical activity cardiac arrest, and in accordance with his wishes no resuscitative efforts were performed. While the outcome was unfortunate, it also highlights the temporal relationship between the presented ECG findings and fatal arrhythmias. After reviewing the case, one should recognize the importance of the ECG for screening and prompt treatment of electrolyte derangements, understand the acute management of hyperkalemia, and appreciate the possibility for rapid deterioration. Topics: Hyperkalemia, electrocardiography, electrolytes.

A workflow task force affects emergency physician compliance for point-of-care ultrasound documentation and billing.

BACKGROUND: Emergency point-of-care ultrasound (POC u/s) is an example of a health information technology that improves patient care and time to correct diagnosis. POC u/s examinations should be documented, as they comprise an integral component of physician decision making. Incomplete documentation prevents coding, billing and physician group compensation for ultrasound-guided procedures and patient care. We aimed to assess the effect of directed education and personal feedback through a task force driven initiative to increase the number of POC u/s examinations documented and transferred to medical coders by emergency medicine physicians. METHODS: Three months before a chosen go-live date, departmental leadership, the ultrasound division, and residents formed a task force. Barriers to documentation were identified through brain storming and email solicitation. The total number and application-specific POC u/s examinations performed and transferred to the healthcare record and medical coders were compared for the pre- and post-task force intervention periods. Chi square analysis was used to determine the difference between the number of POC u/s examinations reported before and after the intervention. RESULTS: A total of 1652 POC u/s examinations were reported during the study period. Successful reporting to the patient care chart and medical coders increased from 41 % pre-task force intervention to 63 % post-intervention (p value 0.000). The number of scans performed during the 3-month periods (pre-intervetion, post-intervention 0-3 months, post-intervention 3-6 months) was similar (521, 594 and 537). When analyzed by specific application, the majority showed a statistically significant increase in the percentage of examinations reported, including those most critical for patient care decision making: (EFAST (41 vs. 64 %), vascular access (26 vs. 61 %), and cardiac (43 vs. 72 %); and those most commonly performed: biliary (44 vs. 61 %) and pelvic (60 vs. 66 %). Of the POC u/s studies coded and reported for reimbursement, 15.9 % were billed before intervention and 32 % were billed after intervention (p value: 0.000). CONCLUSIONS: The formation of a workflow solution task force positively affected emergency physician compliance with POC u/s documentation for coding and billing over a 6-month period. Further investigation should assess the long-term effect of the intervention and whether this translates into increased revenue to the department.

Survey of patient and physician influences and decision-making regarding CT utilization for minor head injury.

OBJECTIVE: Assess factors that influence both the patient and the physician in the setting of minor head injury in adults and the decision-making process around CT utilization. METHODS: This is a convenience sample survey study of adult minor head injury patients (GCS 15) and their physicians regarding factors influencing the decision to use CT to evaluate for intra-cranial haemorrhage. Once a head CT was ordered and before the results were known, both the patient and physician were given a one-page survey asking questions about their concern for injury and rationale for CT use. CT results and surveys were then recorded in a centralized database and analyzed. RESULTS: 584 subjects were enrolled over the 27-month study period. The rate of any intra-cranial haemorrhage was 3.3%. Both the physicians (6% pre-test estimate) and the patients (22% pre-test estimate) over-estimated risk for haemorrhage. Clinical decision rules were not met in 46% of cases where CT was used. Physicians listed an average of 5 factors from a list of 9 that influenced their decision to order CT. Patients listed an average of 1.7 factors influencing their decision to present to the Emergency Department for evaluation. Many patients felt cost (45%) and low risk stratification (34%) should weigh heavily in the decision to use CT. If asked to limit CT utilization, physicians were able to identify a group with less than 2% risk of injury. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with low risk of intra-cranial injury continue to be evaluated by CT. Physician decision-making around the use of CT to evaluate minor head injury is multi-factorial. Shared decision-making between the patient and the physician in a low risk minor head injury encounter shows promise as a method to reduce CT utilization in this low risk cohort.

Falling through the cracks? Missed opportunities for earlier HIV diagnosis in a New York City Hospital.

Summary Newly diagnosed HIV-positive patients have frequent health care encounters prior to diagnosis representing missed opportunities for diagnosis. This study determines the proportion of patients with new HIV diagnoses with encounters in the 3 years prior to diagnosis. We describe the characteristics of newly diagnosed patients and of "late testers" (CD4 <200 cells/mm(3) at the time of diagnosis). We identified all newly diagnosed with HIV in emergency department, inpatient, and outpatient settings between May 1, 2006, and December 31, 2009. Data abstractors searched hospital records to identify all emergency department, inpatient, and outpatient visits for the 3 years prior to diagnosis. In all, 23,271 HIV tests were performed and 253 persons were newly diagnosed (1.1%); 152 new positives (60.1%) made at least one prior visit. Of patients with CD4 counts available, 104/175 (59.4%) had CD4 <200 cells/mm(3). Patients with at least one prior visit had a median of three. There was no difference in numbers of visits between late testers and non-late testers, although late testers were more likely to have ED visits. Most newly diagnosed HIV-positive patients had multiple encounters prior to diagnosis. Many of these patients presented with CD4 counts below 200 cells/mm(3), indicating true missed opportunities for earlier diagnosis.

Emergency department rectal temperatures in over 10 years: A retrospective observational study.

BACKGROUND: Fever in patients can provide an important clue to the etiology of a patient's symptoms. Non-invasive temperature sites (oral, axillary, temporal) may be insensitive due to a variety of factors. This has not been well studied in adult emergency department patients. To determine whether emergency department triage temperatures detected fever adequately when compared to a rectal temperature. METHODS: A retrospective chart review was made of 27 130 adult patients in a high volume, urban emergency department over an eight-year period who received first a non-rectal triage temperature and then a subsequent rectal temperature. RESULTS: The mean difference in temperatures between the initial temperature and the rectal temperature was 1.3 °F (P<0.001), with 25.9% of the patients having higher rectal temperatures ≥2 °F, and 5.0% having higher rectal temperatures ≥4 °F. The mean difference among the patients who received oral, axillary, and temporal temperatures was 1.2 °F (P<0.001), 1.8 °F (P<0.001), and 1.2 °F (P<0.001) respectively. About 18.1% of the patients were initially afebrile and found to be febrile by rectal temperature, with an average difference of 2.5 °F (P<0.001). These patients had a higher rate of admission (61.4%, P<0.005), and were more likely to be admitted to the hospital for a higher level of care, such as an intensive care unit, when compared with the full cohort (12.5% vs. 5.8%, P<0.005). CONCLUSIONS: There are significant differences between rectal temperatures and non-invasive triage temperatures in this emergency department cohort. In almost one in five patients, fever was missed by triage temperature.

Pathway for the management of survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.

The estimated number of out-of-hospital care arrest cases is about 300,000 per year in the United States. Two landmark studies published in 2002 demonstrated that the use of therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest decreased mortality and improved neurologic outcome. Based on these studies, the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation and the American Heart Association recommended the use of therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest. Therapeutic hypothermia is defined as a controlled lowering of core body temperature to 32 degrees C to 34 degrees C. This temperature goal represents the optimal balance between clinical effect and cardiovascular toxicity. Therapeutic hypothermia does require resources to implement-including device, close nursing care, and monitoring. It is important to select patients who have potential for benefit from this technique which is a limited resource and carries potential complications. A collaborative team approach involving physicians and nurses is critical for successful development and implementation of this kind of a protocol. In 2004, the "Advanced Cardiac Admission Program" was launched at the St. Luke's Roosevelt Hospital Center of Columbia University in New York. The program consists of a series of projects, which have been developed to bridge the gap between published guidelines and implementation during "real world" patient care. In this article, we are reporting our latest project for the comprehensive management of survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. The pathway is divided into 3 steps: Step I, From the field through the emergency department into the cardiac catherization laboratory and to the critical care unit; Step II, Induced invasive hypothermia protocol in the critical care unit (this step is divided into 3 phases: 1, invasive cooling for the first 24 hours; 2, rewarming; 3, maintenance); Step III, Management post the rewarming phase including the recommendation for out-of-hospital therapy and the ethical decision to define goal of care. We hope that this novel pathway will bridge the gap between the complex guidelines and the actual clinical practice and will improve the survival and neurologic condition of patients suffering cardiac arrest.

Emergency department rectal temperatures in over 10 years: A retrospective observational study / 世界急诊医学杂志（英文）

@#BACKGROUND: Fever in patients can provide an important clue to the etiology of a patient's symptoms. Non-invasive temperature sites (oral, axillary, temporal) may be insensitive due to a variety of factors. This has not been well studied in adult emergency department patients. To determine whether emergency department triage temperatures detected fever adequately when compared to a rectal temperature. METHODS: A retrospective chart review was made of 27130 adult patients in a high volume, urban emergency department over an eight-year period who received first a non-rectal triage temperature and then a subsequent rectal temperature. RESULTS: The mean difference in temperatures between the initial temperature and the rectal temperature was 1.3 °F (P<0.001), with 25.9% of the patients having higher rectal temperatures ≥2 °F, and 5.0% having higher rectal temperatures ≥4 °F. The mean difference among the patients who received oral, axillary, and temporal temperatures was 1.2 °F (P<0.001), 1.8 °F (P<0.001), and 1.2 °F (P<0.001) respectively. About 18.1% of the patients were initially afebrile and found to be febrile by rectal temperature, with an average difference of 2.5 °F (P<0.001). These patients had a higher rate of admission (61.4%, P<0.005), and were more likely to be admitted to the hospital for a higher level of care, such as an intensive care unit, when compared with the full cohort (12.5% vs. 5.8%, P<0.005). CONCLUSIONS: There are significant differences between rectal temperatures and non-invasive triage temperatures in this emergency department cohort. In almost one in five patients, fever was missed by triage temperature.