Definition of safe zone in vertebral body in relation to anterior instrumentation.

OBJECTIVES: We set out to determine the "safe zone" for anterior instrumentation in scoliosis surgery assessing the relationship of the great vessels to the spine. METHODS: A total of 34 children undergoing posterior idiopathic scoliosis surgery were included in the study between 2010 and 2016. The preoperative scans were assessed to identify the position of the great vessels relative to the spine from T4 to L4. A coordinate system was specifically designed to determine safe zones for device locations. The safe zone right (SZR) was defined as the angle formed between X-axis (0°) and a line connecting the origin and the edge of the aorta and the safe zone left (SZL), the angle between the edge of the aorta to 180°. RESULTS: The average age was 14 years, with 30 females (88.2%). Lenke classification, the most common curve was 1BN (20.6%), followed by 1AN, 3C- and 6CN (8.8% each). The Apex was T8 and T9 (29.4 and 23.5% respectively). 58% of the curves were right sided. The mean SZL was from 155.7° to 180° at the T4 level to 104.3°-180° at L4. The mean SZR was from 0 to 110.7° at T4 to 0-76.18° at L4. The side of the curves was correlated at p level with the SZL and SZR. There was a significant correlation in the following levels: from T4 to L2 in the SZL, and from T7 to L2 in the SZR. CONCLUSIONS: Between T4 and T11, the right side of the vertebrae is safe, and from T12 to L4 the safe zones are more lateral and smaller. In a right-sided scoliosis, the danger zone moves more posterolateral at every level. In a left-sided curve, the danger zone is more anteromedial. Knowledge of these safe zones should allow safer placement of anterior devices. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III.

The analgesic effect of epidural clonidine after spinal surgery: a randomized placebo-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Clonidine is an alpha(2) adrenoreceptor and imidazoline receptor agonist, which has analgesic, sedative, and minimum alveolar anesthetic concentration-sparing effects. It has been used orally, IV, and epidurally. In spinal surgery, there is a reluctance to use local anesthetic-based epidural analgesia postoperatively because of fears of masking important signs of nerve root or spinal cord injury. METHODS: We randomized 66 patients undergoing uncomplicated decompressive spinal surgery to receive an epidural infusion of either clonidine (Group C) or saline placebo (Group P) postoperatively. Morphine consumption by patient-controlled analgesia device was recorded for 36 h. RESULTS: Morphine consumption was significantly lower in Group C. The mean consumption at 36 h was 35 mg (95% confidence interval 21-50 mg) in Group C, compared with 61 mg (95% confidence interval 48-74 mg) in the control group. Nausea was significantly reduced in Group C (6.5%), when compared with placebo (38.2%). CONCLUSION: Low-dose epidural clonidine significantly reduced the demand for morphine and reduced postoperative nausea with few side effects.

Rotatory atlanto-axial dislocation in an infant with osteogenesis imperfecta.

This is a case report of a 15-month-old patient with osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) who sustained atlanto-axial dislocation. Our objective is to report a unique case of traumatic atlanto-axial subluxation in a child with osteogenesis imperfecta associated with bilateral femoral fractures. The management is discussed. Atlanto-axial dislocation occurring with associated osteogenesis imperfecta is very rare. There have been no previous reported cases. A 15-month-old girl with osteogenesis imperfecta sustained a traumatic atlanto-axial dislocation. The child was followed-up through presentation, diagnosis, management and post-discharge. The initial diagnosis was confirmed with a CT scan. The patient was treated conservatively with a halo-traction for 4 weeks followed by a halo jacket for a further 4 weeks. Both appliances were fitted under general anaesthetic. An anatomical reduction was achieved. There was no neurological deficit at any stage. The child has had a successful outcome. She is asymptomatic with a full range of movement at the atlanto-axial joints at 9 months. In conclusion, this paper records our management of this rare problem.

The diagnosis and management of infection following instrumented spinal fusion.

A 10-year retrospective audit. (1) The incidence of infection; (2) causative organisms; (3) whether eradication of infection is achievable with spinal implant retention; (4) patient outcome. The reported incidence of infection following posterior spinal instrumentation is between 2.6 and 3.8%. Management of infection is controversial, with some advocating serial wound debridement while others report that infection cannot be eradicated with retention of implants. There are no published data demonstrating that propionibacteria are associated with early postoperative infection. The management of infected cases at our institution includes eventual removal of their implants. Our population was identified by studying the case notes of all patients who had undergone removal of spinal implants and cross-referencing this population with positive microbiology or histology reports. The incidence of infection was 3.7%. Propionibacteria were isolated in 45% of cases. The diagnosis of infection was unexpected in 25% of patients, following removal of implants for prominence of implants or back pain. Sixty per cent of patients with acute postoperative deep wound infection had continuing active infection on subsequent removal of implants, despite long-term antibiotics and wound debridement. Fourty-six per cent of patients had a stable, pain-free spine at the end of their treatment. This is the largest reported series of infections following posterior spinal instrumented fusions of which we are aware. Propionibacteria are a common cause of infection and successful eradication of infection cannot be reliably achieved with antibiotics and wound debridement alone.

Targeted Distraction: Spinal Growth in Children With Early-Onset Scoliosis Treated With a Tail-gating Technique for Magnetically Controlled Growing Rods.

STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study OBJECTIVE.: To understand the efficacy of a tail-gating technique (TGT) to mirror the normal spinal growth of children with early-onset scoliosis (EOS) treated with magnetically controlled growing rods (MCGR). SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: MCGR allow outpatient distraction and guided spinal growth without the need for repeat surgery. Two techniques (maximal and targeted) are currently employed to determine the distraction amount, however the efficacy of each is unknown. This study specifically assesses the ability of targeted distraction to achieve physiological growth. METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of European children treated with MCGR using a TGT and analyzed the post-operative clinical and radiographic outcomes, including the sitting height, standing height, coronal Cobb angle, T1-T12 and T1-S1 height. Furthermore, we compared the post-operative sitting/standing height ratio every 6 months to those reported for normal age- and sex-matched European children. RESULTS: Thirty-five children were included with a mean follow-up of 3.4 years (1.8-5.8 years). All clinical and radiographic parameters significantly (P < 0.05) improved immediately post-operatively and were maintained until final follow-up. The TGT mirrored the normative sitting/standing height ratios for expected spinal growth (Pearson correlation 0.95 for males and 0.90 for females). The mean difference between the reference values for the sitting/standing height ratio and our results was 0.0124 (P < 0.001) for males and 0.0068 (P = 0.010) for females. CONCLUSION: MCGR can reliably improve the coronal deformity in children with EOS while maintaining spinal growth. A TGT to determine the distraction amount at follow-up accurately mirrors the normal growth pattern of age-, sex-, and ethnicity-matched children. However, patients treated with this technique have a statistically significant, but clinically insignificant, shorter than physiologically normal spinal height. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 3.

Paper #31: The Oxford 5 year observational study on 35 patients with Magnetically Controlled Growing Rods (MCGR).

MCGR controls scoliosis progression and allows growth. Functional activity also improves generally. Primary infection rates are low. The overall unplanned return to theatre rates are still high but the psychosocial benefits are obvious.

Paper #25: Quantifying the 'Law of Diminishing Returns' in Magnetically Controlled Growing Rods.

The 'law of diminishing returns' can also be observed following serial distraction in MCGR. In comparison to previously published data for CGRS, there is a gradual linear decline as opposed to a rapid initial decline in lengthening. In the older, heavier child a reduced distraction ratio in the concave rod of the MCGR device is noted over time.

Quality of Life and Surgical Outcomes After Soft-Tissue Reconstruction of Complex Oncologic Defects of the Spine and Sacrum.

BACKGROUND: Tumor-related spinal surgery has been revolutionized by recent advances in spinal stabilization, modern neuroimaging, and perioperative intensive medicine. This study examines clinical outcomes and factors associated with complications following reconstruction of complex oncologic defects of the spine and sacrum, in an attempt to increase preoperative recognition of high-risk patients with diminished wound-healing capacity and to optimize clinical outcomes in this cohort. METHODS: We performed a retrospective analysis of fifty-five consecutive patients who underwent soft-tissue reconstruction with or without osseous stabilization of defects following spinal or sacral tumor resection at a quaternary referral center over a twelve-year period. Surgical outcomes included the prevalence of postoperative complications and success of wound closure at the latest follow-up. Health-related quality-of-life outcomes were assessed using the EORTC QLQ-C30 (European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer 30-Item Core Quality of Life Questionnaire) and SF-36 (Short Form-36) questionnaires. RESULTS: The mean age of the cohort was 46.7 years (range, eighteen to seventy-one years), with a male preponderance (3:1). Soft-tissue reconstructions (n = 70 flaps) were performed in the fifty-five patients. Overall, 36.3% of patients had wound complications. There was a twofold higher wound complication rate after delayed (60%) compared with immediate (29%) reconstruction (p = 0.03). Patients undergoing delayed reconstruction reported significantly lower SF-36 and EORTC QLQ-C30 scores. CONCLUSIONS: Orthoplastic management of spinal tumors should involve a strategy for preoperative recognition of patients at risk of compromised wound-healing. Prophylactic soft-tissue reconstruction can achieve stable definitive wound closure and potentially avoid the need for secondary procedures in appropriately selected patients. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic Level IV. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

The MRC spine stabilization trial: surgical methods, outcomes, costs, and complications of surgical stabilization.

STUDY DESIGN: A review of the surgical costs and results in a group of patients randomly allocated to surgery as part of a large prospective randomized trial of patients with chronic back pain. OBJECTIVE: To report the observational data from the surgical arm of a randomized trial comparing surgery with intensive rehabilitation for chronic low back pain. Clinical and economic data are reported. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Surgery for chronic low back pain is a well established but unproven intervention. The most cost-effective technique for spinal stabilization is still not established. METHODS: One hundred six patients with chronic low back pain were randomized to the surgical group of a randomized trial comparing spinal fusion of the lumbar with a 3 week intensive rehabilitation program. The primary outcomes were the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) and the Shuttle Walking Test measured at baseline and 2 years postrandomization. Patients were stratified by preoperative diagnosis, smoking habit, and litigation. Complications were assessed and costs analyzed. RESULTS: Of the 176 surgical patients, 56 underwent postero-lateral fusion, 57 underwent interbody fusion, and 24 underwent flexible stabilization of the spine. The mean ODI for all patients in the surgical arm of the trial improved from a baseline of 46.5 (SD 14.6) to 34.2 (SD 21) at 2 years. Health care costs were higher ( 3109 pounds difference) for more complex procedures, and nearly 6 times as many early complications occurred with the more complex procedures. Smoking and unemployment were associated with worse results whereas litigation did not adversely affect the outcome. CONCLUSION: These observational changes in the ODI after surgery are similar to those reported from other studies of spinal fusion. More complex surgery is more expensive with more complications than postero-lateral fusion.

Surgical stabilisation of the spine compared with a programme of intensive rehabilitation for the management of patients with chronic low back pain: cost utility analysis based on a randomised controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether, from a health provider and patient perspective, surgical stabilisation of the spine is cost effective when compared with an intensive programme of rehabilitation in patients with chronic low back pain. DESIGN: Economic evaluation alongside a pragmatic randomised controlled trial. SETTING: Secondary care. PARTICIPANTS: 349 patients randomised to surgery (n = 176) or to an intensive rehabilitation programme (n = 173) from 15 centres across the United Kingdom between June 1996 and February 2002. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Costs related to back pain and incurred by the NHS and patients up to 24 months after randomisation. Return to paid employment and total hours worked. Patient utility as estimated by using the EuroQol EQ-5D questionnaire at several time points and used to calculate quality adjusted life years (QALYs). Cost effectiveness was expressed as an incremental cost per QALY. RESULTS: At two years, 38 patients randomised to rehabilitation had received rehabilitation and surgery whereas just seven surgery patients had received both treatments. The mean total cost per patient was estimated to be 7830 pounds sterling (SD 5202 pounds sterling) in the surgery group and 4526 pounds sterling (SD 4155 pounds sterling) in the intensive rehabilitation arm, a significant difference of 3304 pounds sterling (95% confidence interval 2317 pounds sterling to 4291 pounds sterling). Mean QALYs over the trial period were 1.004 (SD 0.405) in the surgery group and 0.936 (SD 0.431) in the intensive rehabilitation group, giving a non-significant difference of 0.068 (-0.020 to 0.156). The incremental cost effectiveness ratio was estimated to be 48,588 pounds sterling per QALY gained (- 279,883 pounds sterling to 372,406 pounds sterling). CONCLUSION: Two year follow-up data show that surgical stabilisation of the spine may not be a cost effective use of scarce healthcare resources. However, sensitivity analyses show that this could change-for example, if the proportion of rehabilitation patients requiring subsequent surgery continues to increase.

Randomised controlled trial to compare surgical stabilisation of the lumbar spine with an intensive rehabilitation programme for patients with chronic low back pain: the MRC spine stabilisation trial.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the clinical effectiveness of surgical stabilisation (spinal fusion) compared with intensive rehabilitation for patients with chronic low back pain. DESIGN: Multicentre randomised controlled trial. SETTING: 15 secondary care orthopaedic and rehabilitation centres across the United Kingdom. PARTICIPANTS: 349 participants aged 18-55 with chronic low back pain of at least one year's duration who were considered candidates for spinal fusion. INTERVENTION: Lumbar spine fusion or an intensive rehabilitation programme based on principles of cognitive behaviour therapy. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: The primary outcomes were the Oswestry disability index and the shuttle walking test measured at baseline and two years after randomisation. The SF-36 instrument was used as a secondary outcome measure. RESULTS: 176 participants were assigned to surgery and 173 to rehabilitation. 284 (81%) provided follow-up data at 24 months. The mean Oswestry disability index changed favourably from 46.5 (SD 14.6) to 34.0 (SD 21.1) in the surgery group and from 44.8 (SD14.8) to 36.1 (SD 20.6) in the rehabilitation group. The estimated mean difference between the groups was -4.1 (95% confidence interval -8.1 to -0.1, P = 0.045) in favour of surgery. No significant differences between the treatment groups were observed in the shuttle walking test or any of the other outcome measures. CONCLUSIONS: Both groups reported reductions in disability during two years of follow-up, possibly unrelated to the interventions. The statistical difference between treatment groups in one of the two primary outcome measures was marginal and only just reached the predefined minimal clinical difference, and the potential risk and additional cost of surgery also need to be considered. No clear evidence emerged that primary spinal fusion surgery was any more beneficial than intensive rehabilitation.

Aneurysmal bone cyst as a rare cause of spinal cord compression in a young child.

STUDY DESIGN: Case report. OBJECTIVES: To report: 1) one of the youngest cases of aneurysmal bone cysts presenting with cord compression at the cervicothoracic junction with 7-year follow-up; and 2) the technique we used to stabilize such a small spine. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Aneurysmal bone cyst is an uncommon but well-recognized tumor affecting the spine of children. The mean age of presentation is 16 years. It has hardly been reported below the age of 4 years. All data are in the form of case reports or series. Surgical or nonoperative management can be used. Spinal implant systems are not designed for use in very small children. METHODS: Clinical data analysis. RESULTS: A girl presented at age 2 years and 3 months with cord compression at the cervicothoracic junction. After an inconclusive biopsy, a formal excision and reconstruction of the C7 and T1 were performed anteriorly and posteriorly. We used a fibular graft, internal fixation with crossed plates from the maxillofacial implant tray and a Cervifix rod contoured into a rectangle with sublaminar titanium cables. Postsurgery, she had a left Horner syndrome that has never recovered and motor weakness of the right arm that improved but did not fully recover. She developed a staphylococcal infection 6 months postsurgery that was managed by removal of the rectangle. She developed a posterior recurrence 10 months postsurgery, which was managed surgically. Follow-up has been for 7 years without further evidence of recurrence. CONCLUSIONS: Both surgical and nonsurgical management has been advocated for these tumors. The cord compression at presentation forced us toward surgical management. It is likely that observational data are the only evidence available for clinical decision-making. In this case, we were able to obtain good access to the front of the upper thoracic spine by a supraclavicular approach. Tiny plates are available to maxillofacial surgeons that can be adapted for use in the spines of small children.