The Association Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Preterm Delivery: A Latent Class Approach.

Background: Racial and socioeconomic status (SES) disparities in preterm delivery (PTD) have existed in the United States for decades. Disproportionate maternal exposures to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) may increase the risk for adverse birth outcomes. Moreover, racial and SES disparities exist in the prevalence of ACEs, underscoring the need for research that examines whether ACEs contribute to racial and SES disparities in PTD. Methods: We examined the relationship between ACEs and PTD in a longitudinal sample of N = 3,884 women from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (1994-2018). We applied latent class analysis to (1) identify subgroups of women characterized by patterns of ACE occurrence; (2) estimate the association between latent class membership (LCM) and PTD, and (3) examine whether race and SES influence LCM or the association between LCM and PTD. Results: Two latent classes were identified, with women in the high ACEs class characterized by a higher probability of emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and foster care placement compared with the low ACEs class, but neither class was associated with PTD. Race and SES did not predict LCM. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that ACEs may not impact PTD risk in previously hypothesized ways. Future research should assess the impact of ACEs on the probability of having live birth pregnancies as well as the role of potential protective factors in mitigating the impact of ACEs on PTD.

Did the Affordable Care Act Promote Racial Equity in Pregnancy-Related Health? A Scoping Review.

In the United States, there are profound and persistent racial and ethnic disparities in pregnancy-related health, emphasizing the need to promote racial health equity through public policy. There is evidence that the Affordable Care Act (ACA) increased health insurance coverage, access to health care, and health care utilization, and may have affected some pregnancy-related health outcomes (eg, preterm delivery). It is unclear, however, whether these impacts on pregnancy-related outcomes were equitably distributed across race and ethnicity. Thus, the objective of this study was to fill that gap by summarizing the peer-reviewed evidence regarding the impact of the ACA on racial and ethnic disparities in pregnancy-related health outcomes. The authors conducted a scoping review following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR), using broad search terms to identify relevant peer-reviewed literature in PubMed, Web of Science, and EconLit. The authors identified and reviewed n = 21 studies and found that the current literature suggests that the ACA and its components were differentially associated with contraception-related and fertility-related outcomes by race/ethnicity. Literature regarding pregnancy health, birth outcomes, and postpartum health, however, was sparse and mixed, making it difficult to draw conclusions regarding the impact on racial/ethnic disparities in these outcomes. To inform future health policy that reduces racial disparities, additional work is needed to clarify the impacts of contemporary health policy, like the ACA, on racial disparities in pregnancy health, birth outcomes, and postpartum health.

Association of the 2021 Child Tax Credit Advance Payments With Low Birth Weight in the US.

Importance: Infants and pregnant people in the US fare worse on almost all health measures compared with those in peer nations. Families in the US are more likely to live in poverty and have a less generous social safety net, which has generated debate over the contribution of economic conditions to this disparity. Objective: To assess the association between temporary increases in income during pregnancy through the 2021 expanded Child Tax Credit (CTC) and birth outcomes. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study applied a comparison-population, interrupted time series design to data from US birth certificates (January 1, 2014, through December 31, 2021) to test whether the log odds of low birth weight (LBW) among monthly cohorts of births exposed to the CTC would coincide with a decreased incidence of LBW. All singleton live births to US residents aged 15 to 49 years with available data were included. Exposure: Monthly birth cohorts exposed to the CTC were defined as those born to parous people during the CTC advance payment period from July through December 2021. Main Outcomes and Measures: The main outcome was the natural logarithm of the odds of LBW (<2500 g) among monthly birth cohorts. Results: Among included births (n = 28 866 466), 61.2% were to parous people, the majority were to people aged 20 to 39 years (91.7%), and 6.5% were born LBW. The odds of LBW increased above expected values in 5 of the 6 months of the CTC payments (range of increases, 3.3%-5.4% across the 5 months). The outlier-adjusted odds of LBW increased, on average, by 4.2% (95% CI, 2.7%-5.7%) among the monthly birth cohorts exposed to the CTC. Conclusions and Relevance: This study found that the odds of LBW among birth cohorts exposed to the CTC increased above expected values in 5 of the 6 months of the CTC advance payments. Additional research is needed to evaluate rival explanations for this increase in LBW among births exposed to the CTC payments.

Differences in Psychosocial Protective Factors by Race/Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status and Their Relationship to Preterm Delivery.

Background: Non-Hispanic Black ("Black") women in the United States deliver preterm at persistently higher rates than non-Hispanic White ("White") women, and disparities in preterm delivery (PTD) also exist by socioeconomic factors. Research is needed to identify and understand factors that are protective against PTD for Black women and low socioeconomic status (SES) women. Methods: We examined seven potential protective factors at the individual, interpersonal, and neighborhood levels during pregnancy to determine if they (1) differed in prevalence by race/ethnicity and SES and (2) were associated with risk of PTD overall or within specific race/ethnicity and SES groups. We used prospectively collected data from n = 2474 women who were enrolled in the Pregnancy Outcomes and Community Health Study conducted in Michigan (1998-2004). Results: White women reported higher levels of self-esteem, mastery, perceived social support, instrumental social support, and reciprocity compared to Black women (all p < 0.01), while Black women reported higher levels of religiosity compared to white women (p < 0.01). High SES women reported higher levels of all protective factors compared to middle and low SES women (all p < 0.01). While protective factors were not independently associated with PTD, religiosity was associated with lower odds of PTD among low SES women (OR 0.6, 95% CI 0.4-0.9) and among Black women (OR 0.6, 95% CI 0.4-1.0), respectively. Conclusions: Our findings highlight the importance of assessing how protective factors may operate differently across race/ethnicity and SES to promote healthy pregnancy outcomes. Future studies should examine mechanisms that elucidate potential causal pathways between religiosity and PTD for Black women and low SES women.

Impacts of Medicaid Expansion on Health Among Women of Reproductive Age.

INTRODUCTION: Preconception and interconception health care are critical means of identifying, managing, and treating risk factors originating before pregnancy that can harm fetal development and maternal health. However, many women in the U.S. lack health insurance, limiting their ability to access such care. State-level variation in Medicaid eligibility, particularly before and after the 2014 Medicaid expansions, offers a unique opportunity to test the hypothesis that increasing healthcare coverage for low-income women can improve preconception and interconception healthcare access and utilization, chronic disease management, overall health, and health behaviors. METHODS: In 2018-2019, data on 58,365 low-income women aged 18-44 years from the 2011-2016 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System were analyzed, and a difference-in-difference analysis was used to examine the impact of Medicaid expansions on preconception health. RESULTS: Expanded Medicaid eligibility was associated with increased healthcare coverage and utilization, better self-rated health, and decreases in avoidance of care because of cost, heavy drinking, and binge drinking. Medicaid eligibility did not impact diagnoses of chronic conditions, smoking cessation, or BMI. Medicaid eligibility was associated with greater gains in health insurance, utilization, and health among married (vs unmarried) women. Conversely, women with any (vs no) dependent children experienced smaller gains in insurance following the Medicaid expansion, but greater take-up of insurance when eligibility increased and larger behavioral responses to gaining insurance. CONCLUSIONS: Expanded Medicaid coverage may improve access to and utilization of health care among women of reproductive age, which could ultimately improve preconception health.

The Affordable Care Act and the Burden of High Cost Sharing and Utilization Management Restrictions on Access to HIV Medications for People Living with HIV/AIDS.

The HIV/AIDS epidemic continues to be a critical public health issue in the United States, where an estimated 1.2 million individuals live with HIV infection. Viral suppression is one of the primary public health goals for People Living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA). A crucial component of this goal involves adequate access to health care, specifically anti-retroviral HIV medications. The enactment of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) in 2010 raised hopes for millions of PLWHA without access to health care coverage. High cost-sharing requirements enacted by health plans place a financial burden on PLWHA who need ongoing access to these life-saving medications. Plighted with poverty, Detroit, Michigan, is a center of attention for examining the financial burden of HIV medications on PLWHA under the new health plans. From November 2014 to January 2015, monthly out-of-pocket costs and medication utilization requirements for 31 HIV medications were examined for the top 12 insurance carriers offering Qualified Health Plans on Michigan's Health Insurance Marketplace Exchange. The percentage of medications requiring quantity limits and prior authorization were calculated. The average monthly out-of-pocket cost per person ranged from $12 to $667 per medication. Three insurance carriers placed all 31 HIV medications on the highest cost-sharing tier, charging 50% coinsurance. High out-of-pocket costs and medication utilization restrictions discourage PLWHA from enrolling in health plans and threaten interrupted medication adherence, drug resistance, and increased risk of viral transmission. Health plans inflicting high costs and medication restrictions violate provisions of the ACA and undermine health care quality for PLWHA. (Population Health Management 2016;19:272-278).