Developing an Integrated Longitudinal Dataset for Patient-Centered Outcome Measures in Cost-Related Medication Nonadherence.

BACKGROUND: Cost-related medication nonadherence (CRN) is an important patient-centered outcome measure. Longitudinal follow-up of CRN is rare. OBJECTIVE: We propose to develop a novel integrated dataset to study CRN longitudinally. RESEARCH DESIGN: A dataset of 2000 Medicare beneficiaries at high risk of hospitalization surveyed quarterly on CRN and followed up individually for 8 quarters between 2013 and 2018 was linked to Medicare files. A metric of CRN categorizing persistent, intermittent, and transient CRN during the 8 quarters was developed. An ordered logit model and a logit model were developed to assess the factors influencing CRN overall and persistent CRN, respectively. RESULTS: A total of 1761 patients were included in the analysis, among whom 869 (49.3%) reported CRN at least once in the 8-quarter study period, 178 (10%) reported persistent CRN, 395 (22.4%) reported intermittent CRN, and 296 (16.8%) reported transient CRN. The conditional effect in the logit model for persistent CRN revealed that baseline dual eligibility was negatively associated (adjusted odds ratio = 0.45, P < 0.01) and depression positively associated (adjusted odds ratio = 1.55, P = 0.01) with persistent CRN. The marginal analysis in the ordered logit model revealed a clear pattern of higher probabilities of persistent and intermittent CRN at younger ages while transient CRN was flat. Among the 252 subjects who were deceased, 31 (12.3%) reported persistent CRN, compared with 147 (9.74%) who were alive (P = 0.21 by χ2 test). CONCLUSIONS: A significant number of patients reported persistent CRN, including those who were at the end of life. Research is critically needed to understand behavioral patterns among the younger Medicare population.

The Relative Importance of Clinical and Socio-demographic Variables in Prognostic Prediction in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer: A Variable Importance Approach.

BACKGROUND: Prognostic modeling in health care has been predominantly statistical, despite a rapid growth of literature on machine-learning approaches in biological data analysis. We aim to assess the relative importance of variables in predicting overall survival among patients with non-small cell lung cancer using a Variable Importance (VIMP) approach in a machine-learning Random Survival Forest (RSF) model for posttreatment planning and follow-up. METHODS: A total of 935 non-small cell lung cancer patients were randomly and equally divided into 2 training and testing cohorts in an RFS model. The prognostic variables included age, sex, race, the TNM Classification of Malignant Tumors (TNM) stage, smoking history, Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status, histologic type, treatment category, maximum standard uptake value of whole-body tumor (SUVmaxWB), whole-body metabolic tumor volume (MTVwb), and Charlson Comorbidity Index. The VIMP was calculated using a permutation method in the RSF model. We further compared the VIMP of the RSF model to that of the standard Cox survival model. We examined the order of VIMP with the differential functional forms of the variables. RESULTS: In both the RSF and the standard Cox models, the most important variables are treatment category, TNM stage, and MTVwb. The order of VIMP is more robust in RSF model than in Cox model regarding the differential functional forms of the variables. CONCLUSIONS: The RSF VIMP approach can be applied alongside with the Cox model to further advance the understanding of the roles of prognostic factors, and improve prognostic precision and care efficiency.

Development and testing of a web module to IMPROVE generic prescribing of oral contraceptives among primary care physicians.

WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE: The use of generic oral contraceptives (OCPs) can improve adherence and reduce healthcare costs, yet scepticism of generic drugs remains a barrier to generic OCP discussion and prescription. An educational web module was developed to reduce generic scepticism related to OCPs, improve knowledge of generic drugs and increase physician willingness to discuss and prescribe generic OCPs. METHODS: A needs assessment was completed using in-person focus groups at American College of Physicians (ACP) Annual Meeting and a survey targeting baseline generic scepticism. Insights gained were used to build an educational web module detailing barriers and benefits of generic OCP prescription. The module was disseminated via email to an ACP research panel who completed our baseline survey. Post-module evaluation measured learner reaction, knowledge and intention to change behaviour along with generic scepticism. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: The module had a response rate of 56% (n = 208/369). Individuals defined as generic sceptics at baseline were significantly less likely to complete our module compared to non-sceptics (responders 9.6% vs non-responders 16.8%, P = 0.04). The majority (85%, n = 17/20) of baseline sceptics were converted to non-sceptics (P < 0.01) following completion of the module. Compared to non-sceptics, post-module generic sceptics reported less willingness to discuss (sceptic 33.3% vs non-sceptic 71.5%, P < 0.01), but not less willingness to prescribe generic OCPs (sceptic 53.3% vs non-sceptic 67.9%, P = 0.25). Non-white physicians and international medical graduates (IMG) were more likely to be generic sceptics at baseline (non-white 86.9% vs white 69.9%, P = 0.01, IMG 13.0% vs USMG 5.0% vs unknown 18.2%, P = 0.03) but were also more likely to report intention to prescribe generic OCPs as a result of the module (non-white 78.7% vs white 57.3%, P < 0.01, IMG 76.1% vs USMG 50.3% vs unknown 77.3%, P = 0.03). WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION: A brief educational web module can be used to promote prescribing of generic OCPs and reduce generic scepticism.

Developing and validating a novel metabolic tumor volume risk stratification system for supplementing non-small cell lung cancer staging.

PURPOSE: We hypothesized that whole-body metabolic tumor volume (MTVwb) could be used to supplement non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) staging due to its independent prognostic value. The goal of this study was to develop and validate a novel MTVwb risk stratification system to supplement NSCLC staging. METHODS: We performed an IRB-approved retrospective review of 935 patients with NSCLC and FDG-avid tumor divided into modeling and validation cohorts based on the type of PET/CT scanner used for imaging. In addition, sensitivity analysis was conducted by dividing the patient population into two randomized cohorts. Cox regression and Kaplan-Meier survival analyses were performed to determine the prognostic value of the MTVwb risk stratification system. RESULTS: The cut-off values (10.0, 53.4 and 155.0 mL) between the MTVwb quartiles of the modeling cohort were applied to both the modeling and validation cohorts to determine each patient's MTVwb risk stratum. The survival analyses showed that a lower MTVwb risk stratum was associated with better overall survival (all p < 0.01), independent of TNM stage together with other clinical prognostic factors, and the discriminatory power of the MTVwb risk stratification system, as measured by Gönen and Heller's concordance index, was not significantly different from that of TNM stage in both cohorts. Also, the prognostic value of the MTVwb risk stratum was robust in the two randomized cohorts. The discordance rate between the MTVwb risk stratum and TNM stage or substage was 45.1% in the modeling cohort and 50.3% in the validation cohort. CONCLUSION: This study developed and validated a novel MTVwb risk stratification system, which has prognostic value independent of the TNM stage and other clinical prognostic factors in NSCLC, suggesting that it could be used for further NSCLC pretreatment assessment and for refining treatment decisions in individual patients.

Prevalence and persistence of cost-related medication non-adherence before and during the COVID-19 pandemic among medicare patients at high risk of hospitalization.

OBJECTIVE: To study cost-related medication non-adherence (CRN) for a 30-month period before and during the COVID-19 pandemic using a sample of Medicare patients at high risk of hospitalization. DESIGN: A novel data set of quarterly surveys of CRN was used to evaluate CRN before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE) analyses were conducted to evaluate the adjusted coefficients of change in CRN behaviors controlling for socio-demographic and health characteristics. PARTICIPANTS: Six hundred seventy-seven Medicare beneficiaries at high risk of hospitalization who were alive on January 1, 2020 and followed up through quarterly surveys on CRN for 30 months before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Two metrics of prevalence and persistence of CRN and their adjusted coefficients in GEE with binomial family distribution and log link function controlling for socio-demographic and health characteristics. RESULTS: A total of 5,990 quarterly surveys were completed by the 677 patients during the 30-month study period. Among the 677 patients, 250 (37%) were men, 591 (87%) were African American, and 288 (42%) were Medicare-Medicaid dual eligible. The unadjusted prevalence of CRN before and during the COVID-19 pandemic was 31.1% and 25.7% respectively (p = 0.02 by Chi-squared test), and persistent CRN rates were 12.1% and 9.7% respectively (p = 0.17 by Chi-squared test). The adjusted odds ratio of CRN prevalence during the pandemic compared to the pre-pandemic level was 0.75 (p<0.01), and 0.74 (p = 0.03) for persistent CRN in GEE estimations. CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE: There are coherent evidence of a reversal of CRN rates during the COVID-19 pandemic among this high-need, high-cost resource utilization Medicare population. Patients' CRN behaviors may be responsive to exogenous impacts, and the behaviors changed in the same direction with similar magnitude in terms of prevalence (the extensive margin) and persistence (the intensive margin). More research is needed to advance the understanding of the driving forces behind patients' behavioral changes and to identify factors that may be informative for reducing CRN in the long run.

Developing a clinical and PET/CT volumetric prognostic index for risk assessment and management of NSCLC patients after initial therapy.

BACKGROUND: Currently, individual clinical prognostic variables are used sequentially with risk-stratification after TNM staging in clinical practice for the prognostic assessment of patients with NSCLC, which is not effective for estimating the collective impact of multiple individual variables on patient outcomes. Here, we developed a clinical and PET/CT volumetric prognostic (CPVP) index that integrates the prognostic power of multiple clinical variables and metabolic tumor volume from baseline FDG-PET, for use immediately after definitive therapy. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This retrospective cohort study included 998 NSCLC patients diagnosed between 2004 and 2017, randomly assigned to two cohorts for modeling the CPVP index using Cox regression models examining overall survival (OS) and subsequent validation. RESULTS: The CPVP index generated from the model cohort included pretreatment variables (whole-body metabolic tumor volume [MTVwb], clinical TNM stage, tumor histology, performance status, age, race, gender, smoking history) and treatment type. A clinical variable (CV) index without MTVwb and PET/CT volumetric prognostic (PVP) index without clinical variables were also generated for comparison. In the validation cohort, univariate Cox modeling showed a significant association of the index with overall survival (OS; Hazard Ratio [HR] 3.14; 95% confidence interval [95% CI] = 2.71 to 3.65, p < 0.001). Multivariate Cox regression analysis demonstrated a significant association of the index with OS (HR = 3.13, 95% CI = 2.66 to 3.67, p < 0.001). The index showed greater prognostic power (C-statistic = 0.72) than any of its independent variables including clinical TNM stage (C-statistic ranged from 0.50 to 0.69, all p < 0.003), CV index (C-statistic = 0.68, p < 0.001) and PVP index (C-statistic = 0.70, p = 0.006). CONCLUSIONS: The CPVP index for NSCLC patients has moderately strong prognostic power and is more prognostic than its individual prognostic variables and other indices. It provides a practical tool for quantitative prognostic assessment after initial treatment and therefore may be helpful for the development of individualized treatment and monitoring strategy for NSCLC patients.

Socioeconomic disparities in ectopic pregnancy: predictors of adverse outcomes from Illinois hospital-based care, 2000-2006.

This study aimed to identify the incidence of adverse outcomes from ectopic pregnancy hospital care in Illinois (2000-2006), and assess patient, neighborhood, hospital and time factors associated with these outcomes. Discharge data from Illinois hospitals were retrospectively analyzed and ectopic pregnancies were identified using DRG and ICD-9 diagnosis codes. The primary outcome was any complication identified by ICD-9 procedure codes. Secondary outcomes were length of stay and discharge status. Residential zip codes were linked to 2000 U.S. Census data to identify patients' neighborhood demographics. Logistic regression was used to identify risk factors for adverse outcomes. Independent variables were insurance status, age, co-morbidities, neighborhood demographics, hospital type, hospital ectopic pregnancy service volume, and year of discharge. Of 13,007 ectopic pregnancy hospitalizations, 7.4% involved at least one complication identified by procedure codes. Hospitalizations covered by Medicare (for women with chronic disabilities) were more likely than those with other source or without insurance to result in surgical sterilization (OR 4.7, P = 0.012). Hospitalization longer than 2 days was more likely with Medicaid (OR 1.46, P < 0.0005) or no insurance (OR 1.35, P < 0.0005) versus other payers, and among church-operated versus secular hospitals (OR 1.21, P < 0.0005). Compared to public hospitals, private hospitals had lower rates of complications (OR 0.39, P < 0.0005) and of hospitalization longer than 2 days (OR 0.57, P < 0.0005). With time, hospitalizations became shorter (OR 0.53, P < 0.0005) and complication rates higher (OR 1.33, P = 0.024). Ectopic pregnancy patients with Medicaid, Medicare or no insurance, and those admitted to public or religious hospitals, were more likely to experience adverse outcomes.

Association Between the Modalities of Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use and Cost-Related Nonadherence to Medical Care Among Older Americans: A Cohort Study.

Introduction: Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) use has been increasingly prevalent among Americans, whereas its relationship with medical nonadherence is unknown. Methods: Using the National Health Interview Survey, we evaluated the use of CAM modalities and their association with cost-related nonadherence to medical care (CRN) among older Americans by gender strata. Results: Men and women were, in general, in the same pattern of higher likelihood of reporting CRN if they utilized herbal supplements, meditation, and chiropractic or osteopathic manipulations (p < 0.05, respectively). Conclusion: Both men and women are more likely to report financial distress while using various CAM modalities.

Prevalence and Persistence of Cost-Related Medication Nonadherence Among Medicare Beneficiaries at High Risk of Hospitalization.

Importance: The unaffordability of drugs has been a persistent and elusive challenge in the US health care system. Little is known about the prevalence and persistence of cost-related medication nonadherence (CRN) in a population with high-cost, high-need resource utilization. Objective: To evaluate the prevalence and persistence of CRN among Medicare beneficiaries at high risk of hospitalization as well as the characteristics associated with CRN in this population. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study used survey data from Medicare patients at high risk of hospitalization and with a life expectancy greater than 12 months at an urban academic medical center from November 6, 2012, to January 30, 2018. Patients were followed up for 12 months at 3-month intervals from baseline, for a total of 5 surveys. Data were analyzed from September 1, 2020, to January 5, 2021. Main Outcomes and Measures: Self-reported CRN, using a metric of persistence and transiency. Based on the results of the 5 surveys, CRN was categorized as persistent (3 or more surveys), intermittent (2), transient (1), and any (1 or more). Multiple logistic regression analyses were used to evaluate factors associated with persistent and transient CRN. Results: Of the 1655 Medicare beneficiaries followed up during the 15-month study period, 1036 (62.6%) were women and 1452 (87.7%) were Black or African American; 769 (46.5%) were younger than 65 years, and 886 (53.5%) were 65 years or older (mean [SD] age, 62.4 [15.9] years). A total of 374 patients (22.6%) reported CRN at baseline, 810 (48.9%) reported any CRN, and 230 (13.9%) reported persistent CRN (148 [19.2%] of those younger than 65 years and 82 [9.3%] of those 65 years or older). The 230 patients who had persistent CRN accounted for 28% of those who reported CRN at least once during the 15-month study period. Younger age (eg, <50 years vs 75 years: adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 3.07; 95% CI, 1.61-5.86; P = .001), worse self-reported health (AOR, 1.59; 95% CI, 1.10-2.31; P = .01), and depression (AOR, 1.58; 95% CI, 1.11-2.24; P = .01) were associated with greater likelihood of persistent CRN. The population-adjusted prevalence of CRN was 53.6% (887 patients). Conclusions and Relevance: The findings suggest that CRN is prevalent, moderately persistent, and variable in the Medicare population at high risk of hospitalization despite coverage by insurance. Longitudinal follow-up and refined predictive modeling of CRN appear to be needed to identify and target more precisely those with persistent CRN and to develop effective interventions.

Decreasing utilization and increasing prices of brand-name oral contraceptive pills: Implications to societal costs and market competition.

The affordability of pharmaceuticals has been a major challenge in US health care. Generic substitution has been proposed as an important tool to reduce the costs, yet little is known how the prices of more expensive brand-name drugs would be affected by an increased utilization of generics. We aimed to examine the trend of overall utilization and the total costs of brand-name oral contraceptive pills (OCPs), the most widely used form of contraception, and its association with the pharmaceutical market concentration among the OCPs. Data from the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS) 2011-2014, a nationally representative survey of healthcare utilization, were extracted on the utilization of generic and brand-name OCPs. A multiple logit regression analysis was conducted to assess the trend in utilization of brand-name OCPs over time. Total costs, including the costs to the payers and consumers, were synthesized. The Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI), an index describing market concentration, was constructed, and a multiple regression analysis was conducted to evaluate the association between the brand-name OCP prices and the market share of individual brand-name drugs. The odds of utilizing brand-name drugs decreased steadily in 2012, 2013, and 2014 compared to 2012 (AOR 0.87, 0.73, 0.55, respectively, p<0.05) controlling for patient mix. Despite significant decline in total utilization, there was a 90% increase in the price of brand-name OCPs, resulting an 18% increase in revenue from 2011 to 2014 for the industry. During this time, pharmaceutical market concentration for OCPs increased (HHI increased from 1105 in 2011 to 2415 in 2014). Each percentage point increase in the market share by a brand-name OCPs was associated with a $3.12 increase in its price. Market mechanisms matter. Practitioners and policy makers need to take market mechanisms into account in order to realize the benefits of generic substitutions.

Development and testing of a module to promote generic oral contraceptive prescribing among nurse practitioners.

Although generic oral contraceptives (OCPs) can improve adherence and reduce health care expenditures, use of generic OCPs remains low, and the factors that affect generic prescribing are not well understood. We aimed to understand the barriers and facilitators of generic OCP prescribing and potential solutions to increase generic OCP prescribing, as well as pilot an educational module to address clinician misconceptions about generic OCPs. We developed focus group scripts using the 4D model of appreciative inquiry. A total of four focus groups occurred, two at the American Association of Nurse Practitioners (AANP) national conference and two at the American College of Physicians (ACP) Internal Medicine meeting. Focus group transcripts were analyzed using a constant comparative method with no a priori hypothesis to generate emerging and reoccurring themes. Findings from these focus groups were used to develop an educational module promoting generic OCP prescribing. Participants were recruited from the AANP Network for Research and the ACP Research Panel. This study demonstrates that health system factors, workflow factors, clinician factors, and patient factors were the main barriers to and facilitators of generic OCP prescribing. Nurse practitioners were responsive to an educational module and reported increased willingness to discuss and prescribe generic OCPs after completing the module. Interventions to increase generic OCP prescribing must address clinician and patient factors within the context of workflow and larger health system factors.

Association of communication between hospital-based physicians and primary care providers with patient outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Patients admitted to general medicine inpatient services are increasingly cared for by hospital-based physicians rather than their primary care providers (PCPs). This separation of hospital and ambulatory care may result in important care discontinuities after discharge. We sought to determine whether communication between hospital-based physicians and PCPs influences patient outcomes. METHODS: We approached consecutive patients admitted to general medicine services at six US academic centers from July 2001 to June 2003. A random sample of the PCPs for consented patients was contacted 2 weeks after patient discharge and surveyed about communication with the hospital medical team. Responses were linked with the 30-day composite patient outcomes of mortality, hospital readmission, and emergency department (ED) visits obtained through follow-up telephone survey and National Death Index search. We used hierarchical multi-variable logistic regression to model whether communication with the patient's PCP was associated with the 30-day composite outcome. RESULTS: A total of 1,772 PCPs for 2,336 patients were surveyed with 908 PCPs responses and complete patient follow-up available for 1,078 patients. The PCPs for 834 patients (77%) were aware that their patient had been admitted to the hospital. Of these, direct communication between PCPs and inpatient physicians took place for 194 patients (23%), and a discharge summary was available within 2 weeks of discharge for 347 patients (42%). Within 30 days of discharge, 233 (22%) patients died, were readmitted to the hospital, or visited an ED. In adjusted analyses, no relationship was seen between the composite outcome and direct physician communication (adjusted odds ratio 0.87, 95% confidence interval 0.56 - 1.34), the presence of a discharge summary (0.84, 95% CI 0.57-1.22), or PCP awareness of the index hospitalization (1.08, 95% CI 0.73-1.59). CONCLUSION: Analysis of communication between PCPs and inpatient medical teams revealed much room for improvement. Although communication during handoffs of care is important, we were not able to find a relationship between several aspects of communication and associated adverse clinical outcomes in this multi-center patient sample.

Insurance status and quality of diabetes care in community health centers.

OBJECTIVES: We sought to compare quality of diabetes care by insurance type in federally funded community health centers. Method. We categorized 2018 diabetes patients, randomly selected from 27 community health centers in 17 states in 2002, into 6 mutually exclusive insurance groups. We used multivariate logistic regression analyses to compare quality of diabetes care according to 6 National Committee for Quality Assurance Health Plan Employer Data and Information Set diabetes processes of care and outcome measures. RESULTS: Thirty-three percent of patients had no health insurance, 24% had Medicare only, 15% had Medicaid only, 7% had both Medicare and Medicaid, 14% had private insurance, and 7% had another insurance type. Those without insurance were the least likely to meet the quality-of-care measures; those with Medicaid had a quality of care similar to those with no insurance. CONCLUSIONS: Research is needed to identify the major mediators of differences in quality of care by insurance status among safety-net providers such as community health centers. Such research is needed for policy interventions at Medicaid benefit design and as an incentive to improve quality of care.

The effect of the Medicare Part D prescription benefit on drug utilization and expenditures.

BACKGROUND: Information about the effect of the Medicare Part D Prescription Drug Benefit on drug utilization and expenditures is limited. OBJECTIVE: To estimate changes in prescription utilization and out-of-pocket expenditures attributable to Part D among a sample of persons eligible for the benefit. DESIGN: Generalized estimating equations were used to estimate changes in expenditures and utilization among beneficiaries. A control group was included to control for secular trends unrelated to the Part D benefit. SETTING: National pharmacy chain representing approximately 15% of all U.S. retail pharmacy sales. PARTICIPANTS: Persons age 66 to 79 years (those eligible for Part D) and a control group of persons age 60 to 63 years (those ineligible for Part D). The final sample represented approximately 5.1 million unique beneficiaries and 1.8 million unique control individuals. MEASUREMENTS: Prescription utilization (measured in pill-days) and out-of-pocket expenditures, as determined from pharmacy claims from September 2004 to April 2007. RESULTS: During the penalty-free Part D enrollment period (January 2006 to May 2006), average monthly drug utilization increased by 1.1% (95% CI, 0.5% to 1.7%; P < 0.001) and out-of-pocket expenditures decreased by 8.8% (CI, 6.6% to 11.0%; P < 0.001). After enrollment stabilized (June 2006 to April 2007), average monthly drug utilization increased by 5.9% (CI, 5.1% to 6.7%; P < 0.001) and out-of-pocket expenditures decreased by 13.1% (CI, 9.6% to 16.6%; P = 0.003). Compared with eligible nonenrollees, enrollees had higher out-of-pocket expenditures and utilization at baseline but experienced significantly larger decreases in expenditures and increases in utilization after enrollment. LIMITATIONS: Analyses were limited to claims within 1 pharmacy chain. The effect of the "doughnut hole" and the effect of changes on clinical outcomes were not evaluated. CONCLUSION: The Medicare Part D prescription benefit resulted in modest increases in average drug utilization and decreases in average out-of-pocket expenditures among Part D beneficiaries. Further research is needed to examine patterns among other beneficiaries and to evaluate the effect of these changes on health outcomes.

The impact of the Medicare Part D prescription benefit on generic drug use.

BACKGROUND: Little information exists regarding the impact of Medicare Part D on generic drug use. OBJECTIVE: To examine changes in the use of generic prescriptions attributable to Part D among a sample of Medicare beneficiaries. DESIGN, PARTICIPANTS, AND MEASUREMENTS: Difference-in-difference analysis of pharmacy claims of Part D enrollees and non-enrollees aged 67-79 years from 2005 to 2006. The final sample represented approximately 2.4 million unique subjects. Analyses were conducted separately for major therapeutic classes, limited to subjects filling at least one prescription within the class during 2005 and 2006, and adjusted for subject characteristics, prescription characteristics, socio-demographic characteristics measured through zipcode-linked Census data, baseline differences between Part D and non-Part D enrollees, and secular trends in generic use. RESULTS: Generic drugs accounted for 58% of total prescriptions. Among the entire group of beneficiaries, there was a trend of increased generic drug use in 13 out of 15 drug classes examined. However, after adjusting for potential confounders, the growth rate of generic drug use was lower among Part D enrollees than among non-enrollees; enrollees were slightly less likely to fill prescriptions for generic drugs vs. brand-name drugs in 2006 compared to 2005 (odds ratio 0.95, 95% confidence interval 0.94-0.95). CONCLUSIONS: Despite secular trends of increased utilization of generic drugs among both Part D enrollees and non-enrollees, the net impact of Part D among these beneficiaries was a modest decrease in the use of generic drugs. This finding, which is consistent with economic theory but contrary to several recent reports, highlights the complexity of assessing the impact of Part D on overall consumer welfare.

The cost consequences of improving diabetes care: the community health center experience.

BACKGROUND: Despite significant interest in the business case for quality improvement (QI), there are few evaluations of the impact of QI programs on outpatient organizations. The financial impact of the Health Disparities Collaboratives (HDC), a national QI program conducted in community health centers (HCs), was examined. METHODS: Chief executive officers (CEOs) from health centers in two U.S. regions that participated in the Diabetes HDC (N = 74) were surveyed. In case studies of five selected centers, program costs/revenues, clinical costs/revenues, overall center financial health, and indirect costs/benefits were assessed. RESULTS: CEOs were divided on the HDC's overall effect on finances (38%, worsened; 48%, no change; 14%, improved). Case studies showed that the HDC represented a new administrative cost ($6-$22/patient, year 1) without a regular revenue source. In centers with billing data, the balance of diabetes-related clinical costs/revenues and payor mix did not clearly worsen or improve with the program's start. The most commonly mentioned indirect benefits were improved chronic illness care and enhanced staff morale. DISCUSSION: CEO perceptions of the overall financial impact of the HDC vary widely; the case studies illustrate the numerous factors that may influence these perceptions. Whether the identified balance of costs and benefits is generalizable or sustainable will have to be addressed to optimally design financial reimbursement and incentives.

Hypertension and hyperlipidemia management in patients treated at community health centers.

OBJECTIVE: Community health centers (HCs) provide care for millions of medically underserved Americans with disproportionate burdens of hypertension and hyperlipidemia. For both conditions, treatment guidelines recently became more stringent and quality improvement (QI) efforts have intensified. We assessed hypertension and hyperlipidemia management in HCs during this time of guideline revision and increased QI efforts. DESIGN: Cross-sectional chart review. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Eleven Midwestern HCs for 2000 and 9 for 2002 provided audit data from 2,976 randomly chosen patients with hypertension and/or hyperlipidemia. MEASUREMENT: Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC VI/VII) and National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel (NCEP-ATP III) guidelines were used to assess management of these conditions. RESULTS: Hypertension (2000, N=808; 2002, N=692) and hyperlipidemia (2000, N=774; 2002, N=702) outcomes improved for specific clinical subgroups. Hypertensive patients with 1 or more cardiovascular risk factors demonstrated significant improvement (34% vs. 45% controlled at <140/90 mm Hg, p=0.02). Hypertension control for persons with diabetes, renal failure and heart failure increased (16% vs. 28% controlled at <130/85 mm Hg, p=0.006). LDL control increased significantly for patients with 2 or more risk factors (39% vs. 58% controlled at <130 mg/dl, p=0.008). Other clinical subgroups showed trends toward better control, although there was insufficient power to detect significant differences for these groups. CONCLUSION: Hypertension and hyperlipidemia outcomes improved for some risk groups; however, ongoing QI is necessary.

Change in Insurance Status and Cost-related Medication Non-adherence among Older U.S. Adults with Diabetes from 2010 to 2014.

OBJECTIVE: Cost-related medication non-adherence (CRN) is a persistent challenge in health care in the U.S. Insurance coverage is a key determinant of access to medical care. We seek to examine the CRN rates among the older diabetes adult population in the U.S. from 2010 to 2014 when the major provisions of the Affordable Care Act came into force. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHOD: Data from the 2010 and 2014 Health and Retirement Study (HRS) were used for this study. CRN is identified if a respondent indicated taking less medication than was prescribed because of the cost, while diabetes is self-reported. We assessed the change in CRN rates by insurance status using multivariable logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: A total of 4,741 and 4,505 diabetes adults aged 50 or older in 2010 and 2014 were included in the analyses, representing 18.8 million and 19.1 million older adults with diabetes respectively. Overall, the percentage of dual-eligible diabetes patients increased from 8% to 10% and the uninsured decreased from 6% to 4% based on weighted population estimates. The CRN rates decreased from 27% to 21% and from 12% to 10% for those between 50 and 64, and 65 or older, respectively from 2010 to 2014. Race (African American) became a less significant factor for variations in CRN rates in 2014 (p=0.24). CONCLUSIONS: There is an encouraging reduction in CRN rates after implementation of the ACA. However, CRN rates among diabetes patients between 50 and 65 of age remained high.

Effects of use of alternative therapies on quality of life and healthcare spending.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a costly disease that causes much morbidity and mortality in the world, and it was the sixth leading cause of disability in developed countries. We aim to study the utilization pattern of alternative therapies and their effects on quality of life and personal health spending in Chinese OA patients in Hong Kong. Five-hundred forty-seven patients with OA from four regional hospitals in Hong Kong were recruited, and we measured various types of alternative therapies, SF-36 scales, an overall Health Utility Index derived from a pre-scored multi-attribute classification system based upon SF-36 health surveys, health spending per person and out-of-pocket payments and side-effects. The study shows that out of the 547 OA patients, the patients have used a wide spectrum of alternative therapies and often used a multiplicity of them. Payment for alternative therapies constitutes 5% of the overall personal healthcare spending, and 29% of the out-of-pocket payments. The use of alternative therapies was significantly associated with higher personal healthcare spending (p = 0.01), after adjusting for socioeconomic variables, years of OA and severity of OA. The use of alternative therapies was not significantly associated with an improvement in the quality of life in the regression analysis (p = 0.64). The use of alternative therapies was statistically significant associated with the side effects, including gastric discomfort and gastric ulcer/bleeding (p = 0.04, 0.02, respectively). Alternative therapies were used extensively by OA patients in Hong Kong. Clinicians, health policy makers, and insurance carriers should be aware of the potential health and economic effects in practice and policy formulation.