Experimental analysis of the measurement precision of spectral water-leaving radiance in different water types: comment.

This work aims at commenting requirements and conclusions in a recent paper [Wei et al., Opt. Express29, 2780 (2021)10.1364/OE.413784] presenting an evaluation of the precision of water-leaving radiance measurements from a near-surface method. Specifically, this work challenges the uncertainty requirements indicated for satellite ocean color system vicarious calibration resulting from an erroneous interpretation of literature, and an incorrect application of radiometry principles leading to a misestimate of the difference between radiances collected by nadir-view optical sensors operated below and above the water surface.

Sea-surface reflectance factor: replicability of computed values.

The sea-surface reflectance factor ρ required for the determination of the water- leaving radiance from above-water radiometric measurements is derived from radiative transfer simulations relying on models of the sky-radiance distribution and sea-surface statistics. This work primarily investigates the impact on ρ of various sky-radiance and sea-surface models. A specific replicability analysis, restricted to the 550 nm wavelength, has been performed with the Monte Carlo code for Ocean Color Simulations (so-called MOX) accounting for the measurement geometry recommended in protocols for the validation of satellite ocean color data and commonly applied for operational measurements. Results indicate that the variability of ρ increases with wind speed and reaches the largest values for sun elevations close to the zenith or approaching the horizon. In particular, a variability up to about 2% is observed for wind speeds below 4 ms-1 and sun zenith angles larger than 20°. Finally, the benchmark of the ρ values from this study with those formally determined with the Hydrolight code and widely utilized by the ocean color community, exhibits systematic differences. The source of these differences is discussed and the implications for field measurements are addressed.

Characterization and absolute calibration of an AERONET-OC radiometer.

The Ocean Color component of the global Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET-OC) utilizes CE-318 sun photometers modified for above-water radiometry from fixed structures such as oil rigs, lighthouses, and service platforms. Primarily, AERONET-OC measurements allow determination of the water-leaving radiance required for the validation of ocean color satellite data products. One instrument from the AERONET-OC network, identified as AERONET #080, was studied in this work. A laser-illuminated integrating sphere of known radiance enabled determination of the linearity with flux and absolute radiance responsivity at multiple wavelengths within seven of the AERONET #080 filter bands. We compared the results to calibrations from the AERONET facility at the Goddard Space Flight Center of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and from the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission. These results agree within the estimated mean comparison uncertainty of 1.88 % (k=2). We also assessed these results using calibrated lamp-illuminated integrating spheres and observed a spectral dependence to the comparison results that is unexplained.

On the equivalence of near-surface methods to determine the water-leaving radiance.

The equivalence of two radiometric methods relying on a single nadir-view optical sensor to determine the water-leaving radiance LW, namely the Single Depth Approach (SDA) and the Sky-Blocked Approach (SBA), was investigated applying identical hyperspectral radiometers operated on the same deployment platform. Values of LW from SDA and SBA measurements performed in the Black Sea across a variety of waters during ideal illumination conditions and with low-to-slight sea state, exhibited mean absolute differences within 0.5% in the blue-green spectral region and 2% in the red. This result, benefitting of a comprehensive parameterization of optical processes in combination with the characterization of sensors non-linearity, in-water response and reproducibility of absolute radiometric calibrations, indicated ample equivalence of the two near-surface methods in terms of performance and data reduction needs.

Determination of the remote-sensing reflectance from above-water measurements with the "3C model": a further assessment.

The Three-Component Reflectance Model (3C) was primarily developed to improve the determination of the remote-sensing reflectance (Rrs) from above-water radiometric hyperspectral measurements performed during sub-optimal conditions (i.e., cloudy sky, variable viewing geometry, high glint perturbations, low illumination conditions). In view of further validating the model and showing its broad range of uses, this work presents the application of 3C to above-water radiometry data collected in oceanic and coastal waters with a variety of measurement conditions. Rrs derived from measurements performed during optimal and slightly sub-optimal conditions exhibit equivalence with Rrs obtained with an established above-water method that is commonly used to support ocean color validation activities. Additionally, the study shows that 3C can still provide relevant Rrs retrievals from field data characterized by low-light illumination, high glint perturbations and variable measurement geometries, for which the established method cannot be confidently applied. Finally, it is shown that the optimization residual returned by the 3C full-spectrum inversion procedure can be a potential relative indicator to assess the quality of derived Rrs.

Adjacency radiance around a small island: implications for system vicarious calibrations.

The adjacency radiance field surrounding a small island (i.e., the Lampedusa Island in the Central Mediterranean Sea) was theoretically analyzed to address implications on a hypothetical nearby system vicarious calibration (SVC) infrastructure for satellite ocean color sensors. Simulations, performed in the visible and near-infrared regions for the Ocean Land Color Instrument (OLCI) operated onboard Sentinel-3 satellites, show different patterns of adjacency effects (AE) around the island. In the direction of the reflected sunbeam (i.e., in the north-western region), AE mainly originate by missing glint contributions from the sea surface masked by the island. These AE are mainly negative, decrease with wavelength, and strongly depend on sea surface anisotropy (i.e., sea state) and illumination conditions; this hinders the capability to provide a general unique description of their features. In the remaining marine regions, AE are positive and do not exceed the radiometric sensitivity of OLCI data beyond approximately 14 km from the coast. At shorter distances, uncertainties in satellite radiance due to AE would hence not allow fulfilling requirements for SVC.

Adjacency radiance around a small island: implications for system vicarious calibrations: publisher's note.

This publisher's note corrects an equation in Appl. Opt.59, C63 (2020).APOPAI0003-693510.1364/AO.378512.

Active and passive optical remote sensing of the aquatic environment: introduction to the feature issue.

Through decades of efforts and practices, we have achieved great progress in understanding ocean biology and biogeochemistry through satellite measurements of ocean (water) color, or passive remote sensing. These include detailed global maps of the distribution of surface phytoplankton, the production of newly formed particulate organic matter through photosynthesis (i.e., primary production), as well as the change and feedback of phytoplankton in a changing climate, to name a few. However, these results are still far from a full account of ocean biology and biogeochemistry, where we want more detailed information of phytoplankton (e.g., types and sizes), as well as information in the vertical dimension. For such, we are happy to see new developments in ocean optics and ocean color remote sensing. These include, but certainly are not limited to, hyperspectral sensors, measurements via polarized setups, as well as ocean lidar systems. In particular, through pumping laser light into deeper ocean, lidar has demonstrated great potential to fill the gap of passive ocean color remote sensing. These developments in technology are providing exciting new findings where breakthroughs in ocean biogeochemistry are on the horizon. Thus, we organized this feature issue in Applied Optics to summarize a few recent developments and achievements, where readers and the community can easily capture progress on both fronts, as well as the potential and advantages of the fusion of passive and active optical sensing. Specifically, this issue contains 12 papers describing research in both active and passive optical remote sensing of aquatic environment. They are still limited in number and subject, but are expected to stimulate the ocean color community with findings relevant for satellite applications.

Spectral assessment of deployment platform perturbations in above-water radiometry.

Deployment platforms such as ships, towers or buoys may affect the accuracy of nearby radiometric measurements. Aiming at expanding the know-how on platform perturbations in above-water radiometric measurements, this study investigated the spectral impact of the Acqua Alta Oceanographic Tower (AAOT) on the remote-sensing reflectance RRS as a function of the distance d between the tower and the sensor footprint at the sea surface. This was accomplished by exploiting measurements performed with radiometers operated on deployment rigs extending beyond the AAOT superstructure with sensor viewing angle θ = 40° and relative azimuth ϕ = 90° between sensor and sun. AAOT perturbations were also investigated by increasing the reflectance of the tower through white sheets covering part of its superstructure. Results indicate a spectral dependence of perturbations in RRS more pronounced in the near infrared, significantly increasing with the tower reflectance and decreasing with the inverse square of the distance d. In particular, for distances approaching the platform height, AAOT perturbations are found to be generally well below 1% for measurements performed in the visible spectral region and exceed 2% beyond 800 nm. However, with identical measurement geometry, but increasing the AAOT reflectance through the white cover, perturbations approach 1% in the blue-green spectral region and exceed 2% beyond approximately 600 nm. These findings, yet derived from a distinct tower and for specific measurement conditions, raise awareness on spectral perturbations of deployment platforms in above-water radiometry and additionally provide practical elements for the implementation of measurement protocol allowing to constrain these perturbations below required thresholds.

On the minimization of adjacency effects in SeaWiFS primary data products from coastal areas.

The minimization of adjacency effects (AE) in SeaWiFS primary products at the Aqua Alta Oceanographic Tower (AAOT) was investigated using sample images concurrent with in situ measurements. The validation exercise was performed with the NASA SeaDAS processing scheme ingesting original SeaWiFS data and alternatively SeaWiFS top-of-atmosphere data corrected for AE, and additionally including and excluding the default turbid water (TW) correction algorithm. Results show overestimates of the TW contributions partially compensating for AE. The analysis also suggests that intra-annual biases observed in SeaWiFS radiometric products at the AAOT may result from a misinterpretation of the NIR atmospheric signal as water contribution in data acquired in winter, and from uncompensated AE in data acquired in summer.

Effects of integration time on in-water radiometric profiles.

This work investigates the effects of integration time on in-water downward irradiance Ed, upward irradiance Eu and upwelling radiance Lu profile data acquired with free-fall hyperspectral systems. Analyzed quantities are the subsurface value and the diffuse attenuation coefficient derived by applying linear and non-linear regression schemes. Case studies include oligotrophic waters (Case-1), as well as waters dominated by Colored Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM) and Non-Algal Particles (NAP). Assuming a 24-bit digitization, measurements resulting from the accumulation of photons over integration times varying between 8 and 2048ms are evaluated at depths corresponding to: 1) the beginning of each integration interval (Fst); 2) the end of each integration interval (Lst); 3) the averages of Fst and Lst values (Avg); and finally 4) the values weighted accounting for the diffuse attenuation coefficient of water (Wgt). Statistical figures show that the effects of integration time can bias results well above 5% as a function of the depth definition. Results indicate the validity of the Wgt depth definition and the fair applicability of the Avg one. Instead, both the Fst and Lst depths should not be adopted since they may introduce pronounced biases in Eu and Lu regression products for highly absorbing waters. Finally, the study reconfirms the relevance of combining multiple radiometric casts into a single profile to increase precision of regression products.

Correction for the non-nadir viewing geometry of AERONET-OC above water radiometry data: an estimate of uncertainties.

The effects of non-nadir viewing geometry in above-water radiometry data were investigated using field measurements and two different correction approaches: one centered on chlorophyll-a concentration (Chla) developed for Case-1 waters, and the other relying on seawater inherent optical properties (IOP) proposed for any water type. With specific reference to data from the Ocean Color component of the AErosol RObotic NETwork (AERONET-OC), the study focused on the assessment of the uncertainties affecting corrections for non-nadir view of data collected with 40° in-air viewing angle and with 90° relative azimuth between viewing direction and sun. The study analyzed AERONET-OC water-leaving radiance data from different European seas to determine differences between corrections performed with the Chla- and the IOP-based approaches. Additionally, data collected in waters characterized by different optical complexity and comprising water-leaving radiances measured at nadir and with 28.6° in-water viewing angle (corresponding to 40° in-air) and 90° relative azimuth, were used to investigate the uncertainties of the two correction approaches. Results from the analysis of data from AERONET-OC sites characterized by a variety of optically complex waters, indicate corrections with uncertainties between 20% and 35% from 412 nm to 667 nm for the IOP-based approach. Conversely, uncertainties for the Chla-based one largely vary with wavelength and water type, with values of approximately 55% at 412 nm, 20-40% between 490 nm and 551 nm, and exceeding 60% at 667 nm.

On the detectability of adjacency effects in ocean color remote sensing of mid-latitude coastal environments by SeaWiFS, MODIS-A, MERIS, OLCI, OLI and MSI.

The detectability of adjacency effects (AE) in ocean color remote sensing by SeaWiFS, MODIS-A, MERIS, OLCI, OLI and MSI is theoretically assessed for typical observation conditions up to 36 km offshore (20 km for MSI). The methodology detailed in Bulgarelli et al. (2014) is applied to expand previous investigations to the wide range of terrestrial land covers and water types usually encountered in mid-latitude coastal environments. Simulations fully account for multiple scattering within a stratified atmosphere bounded by a non-uniform reflecting surface, sea surface roughness, sun position and off-nadir sensor view. A harmonized comparison of AE is ensured by adjusting the radiometric sensitivity of each sensor to the same input radiance. Results show that average AE in data from MODIS-A, and from MERIS and OLCI in reduced spatial resolution, are still above the sensor noise level (NL) at 36 km offshore, except for AE caused by green vegetation at the red wavelengths. Conversely, in data from the less sensitive SeaWiFS, OLI and MSI sensors, as well as from MERIS and OLCI in full spatial resolution, sole AE caused by highly reflecting land covers (such as snow, dry vegetation, white sand and concrete) are above the sensor NL throughout the transect, while AE originated from green vegetation and bare soil at visible wavelengths may become lower than NL at close distance from the coast. Such a distance increases with the radiometric resolution of the sensor. It is finally observed that AE are slightly sensitive to the water type only at the blue wavelengths. Notably, for an atmospheric correction scheme inferring the aerosol properties from NIR data, perturbations induced by AE at NIR and visible wavelengths might compensate each other. As a consequence, biases induced by AE on radiometric products (e.g., the water-leaving radiance) are not strictly correlated to the intensity of the reflectance of the nearby land.

Impact of spectral resolution of in situ ocean color radiometric data in satellite matchups analyses.

The spectral resolution requirements for in situ remote sensing reflectanceRRS measurements aiming at supporting satellite ocean color validation and System Vicarious Calibration (SVC) were investigated. The study, conducted using sample hyperspectral RRS from different water types, focused on the visible spectral bands of the ocean land color imager (OLCI) and of the Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem (PACE) satellite sensors. Allowing for a ±0.5% maximum difference between in situ and satellite derived RRS solely due to the spectral band characteristics of the in situ radiometer, a spectral resolution of 1 nm for SVC of PACE is needed in oligotrophic waters. Requirements decrease to 3 nm for SVC of OLCI. In the case of validation activities, which exhibit less stringent uncertainty requirements with respect to SVC, a maximum difference of ±1% between in situ and satellite derived data indicates the need for a spectral resolution of 3 nm for both OLCI and PACE in oligotrophic waters. Conversely, spectral resolutions of 6 nm for PACE and 9 nm for OLCI appear to satisfy validation activities in optically complex waters.

Adjacency effects in satellite radiometric products from coastal waters: a theoretical analysis for the northern Adriatic Sea.

Biases induced by land perturbations in satellite-derived water-leaving radiance are theoretically estimated for typical observation conditions in a coastal area of the northern Adriatic Sea hosting the Aqua Alta Oceanographic Tower (AAOT) validation site. Two different correction procedures are considered: not deriving (AC-1) or alternatively deriving (AC-2) the atmospheric properties from the remote sensing data. In both cases, biases due to adjacency effects largely increase by approaching the coast and with the satellite viewing angle. Conversely, the seasonal and spectral dependence of biases significantly differ between AC-1 and AC-2 schemes. For AC-1 schemes average biases are within ±5% throughout the transect at yellow-green wavelengths, but at the coast they can reach -21% and 34% at 412 and 670 nm, respectively, and exceed 100% at 865 nm. For AC-2 schemes, adjacency effects at those wavelengths from which atmospheric properties are inferred add significant perturbations. For the specific case of a correction scheme determining the atmospheric properties from the near-infrared region and by adopting a power-law spectral extrapolation of adjacency perturbations on the derived atmospheric radiance, average biases become all negative with values up to -60% and -74% at 412 and 670 nm at the coast, respectively. The seasonal trend of estimated biases at the AAOT is consistent with intra-annual variation of biases from match-ups between in situ and satellite products derived with SeaDAS from SeaWiFS and MODIS data. Nevertheless, estimated biases at blue wavelengths exceed systematic differences determined from match-up analysis. This may be explained by uncertainties and approximations in the simulation procedure, and by mechanisms of compensation introduced by the turbid water correction algorithm implemented in SeaDAS.

An evaluation of marine regions relevant for ocean color system vicarious calibration.

System Vicarious Calibration (SVC) is the fundamental process commonly implemented to meet uncertainty requirements in satellite ocean color data. It is performed by applying gain factors, g-factors, to the pre-launch calibration coefficients of the space sensor already corrected for sensitivity decay with time. Mission specific g-factors are determined from top-of-the-atmosphere data computed by propagating highly accurate in situ values of the water-leaving radiance, Lw, to the satellite sensor. Values of Lw from marine regions characterized by oligotrophic/mesotrophic waters and maritime aerosols, high environmental stability and spatial homogeneity, low cloudiness and absence of any source of land contamination, are essential to determine g-factors applicable to the creation of Climate Data Records (CDRs) from multiple ocean color missions. Accounting for the location of existing and potential new SVC fixed sites, marine regions satisfying SVC requirements for the generation of CDRs have been identified through the analysis of satellite data from recent ocean color missions.

Experimental evaluation of theoretical sea surface reflectance factors relevant to above-water radiometry.

Determination of the water-leaving radiance LW through above-water radiometry requires knowledge of accurate reflectance factors ρ of the sea surface. Publicly available ρ relevant to above-water radiometry include theoretical data sets generated: i. by assuming a sky radiance distribution accounting for aerosols and multiple scattering, but neglecting polarization, and quantifying sea surface effects through Cox-Munk wave slope statistics; or differently ii. accounting for polarization, but assuming an ideal Rayleigh sky radiance distribution, and quantifying sea surface effects through modeled wave elevation and slope variance spectra. The impact on above-water data products of differences between those factors ρ was quantified through comparison of LW from the Ocean Color component of the Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET-OC) with collocated LW from in-water radiometry. Results from the analysis of radiance measurements from the sea performed with 40 degrees viewing angle and 90 degrees azimuth offset with respect to the sun plane, indicated a slightly better agreement between above- and in-water LW determined for wind speeds tentatively lower than 4 m s-1 with ρ computed accounting for aerosols, multiple scattering and Cox-Munk surfaces. Nevertheless, analyses performed by partitioning the investigated data set also indicated that actual ρ values would exhibit dependence on sun zenith comprised between those characterizing the two sets of reflectance factors.

Polarimetric characteristics of a class of hyperspectral radiometers.

The polarimetric characteristics of a class of hyperspectral radiometers commonly applied for above-water radiometry have been investigated by analyzing a sample of sensors. Results indicate polarization sensitivity increasing with wavelength and exhibiting values varying from sensor to sensor. In the case of radiance sensors, the maximum differences increase from approximately 0.4% at 400 nm to 1.3% at 750 nm. In the case of irradiance sensors, due to depolarizing effects of the diffusing collector, the maximum differences between horizontal and vertical polarization sensitivities vary from approximately 0.3% at 400 nm to 0.6% at 750 nm. Application of the previous results to above-water radiometry measurements performed in sediment dominated waters indicates that neglecting polarization effects may lead to uncertainties not exceeding a few tenths of a percent in remote sensing reflectance RRS determined in the 400-570 nm spectral interval. Conversely, uncertainties spectrally increase toward the near infrared, reaching several percent at 750 nm in the case of oligotrophic waters.

Stray light effects in above-water remote-sensing reflectance from hyperspectral radiometers.

Stray light perturbations are unwanted distortions of the measured spectrum due to the nonideal performance of optical radiometers. Because of this, stray light characterization and correction is essential when accurate radiometric measurements are a necessity. In agreement with such a need, this study focused on stray light correction of hyperspectral radiometers widely applied for above-water measurements to determine the remote-sensing reflectance (RRS). Stray light of sample radiometers was experimentally characterized and a correction algorithm was developed and applied to field measurements performed in the Mediterranean Sea. Results indicate that mean stray light corrections are appreciable, with values generally varying from -1% to +1% in the 400-700 nm spectral region for downward irradiance and sky radiance, and from -1% to +4% for total radiance from the sea. Mean corrections for data products such as RRS exhibit values that depend on water type varying between -0.5% and +1% in the blue-green spectral region, with peaks up to 9% in the red in eutrophic waters. The possibility of using one common stray light correction matrix for the analyzed class of radiometers was also investigated. Results centered on RRS support such a feasibility at the expense of an increment of the uncertainty typically well below 0.5% in the blue-green and up to 1% in the red, assuming sensors are based on spectrographs from the same production batch.

Simulation and analysis of adjacency effects in coastal waters: a case study.

A methodology has been developed and applied to accurately quantify and analyze adjacency effects in satellite ocean color data for a set of realistic and representative observation conditions in the northern Adriatic Sea. The procedure properly accounts for sea surface reflectance anisotropy, off-nadir views, coastal morphology, and atmospheric multiple scattering. The study further includes a sensitivity analysis on commonly applied approximations. Results indicate that, within the accuracy limits defined by the radiometric resolution of ocean color sensors, adjacency effects in coastal waters might be significant at both visible and near-infrared wavelengths up to several kilometers off the coast. These results additionally highlight a significant dependence on the angle of observation, on the directional reflectance properties of the sea surface, and on the atmospheric multiple scattering.