Perioperative Durvalumab for Resectable Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer.

BACKGROUND: Neoadjuvant or adjuvant immunotherapy can improve outcomes in patients with resectable non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Perioperative regimens may combine benefits of both to improve long-term outcomes. METHODS: We randomly assigned patients with resectable NSCLC (stage II to IIIB [N2 node stage] according to the eighth edition of the AJCC Cancer Staging Manual) to receive platinum-based chemotherapy plus durvalumab or placebo administered intravenously every 3 weeks for 4 cycles before surgery, followed by adjuvant durvalumab or placebo intravenously every 4 weeks for 12 cycles. Randomization was stratified according to disease stage (II or III) and programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression (≥1% or <1%). Primary end points were event-free survival (defined as the time to the earliest occurrence of progressive disease that precluded surgery or prevented completion of surgery, disease recurrence [assessed in a blinded fashion by independent central review], or death from any cause) and pathological complete response (evaluated centrally). RESULTS: A total of 802 patients were randomly assigned to receive durvalumab (400 patients) or placebo (402 patients). The duration of event-free survival was significantly longer with durvalumab than with placebo; the stratified hazard ratio for disease progression, recurrence, or death was 0.68 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.53 to 0.88; P = 0.004) at the first interim analysis. At the 12-month landmark analysis, event-free survival was observed in 73.4% of the patients who received durvalumab (95% CI, 67.9 to 78.1), as compared with 64.5% of the patients who received placebo (95% CI, 58.8 to 69.6). The incidence of pathological complete response was significantly greater with durvalumab than with placebo (17.2% vs. 4.3% at the final analysis; difference, 13.0 percentage points; 95% CI, 8.7 to 17.6; P<0.001 at interim analysis of data from 402 patients). Event-free survival and pathological complete response benefit were observed regardless of stage and PD-L1 expression. Adverse events of maximum grade 3 or 4 occurred in 42.4% of patients with durvalumab and in 43.2% with placebo. Data from 62 patients with documented EGFR or ALK alterations were excluded from the efficacy analyses in the modified intention-to-treat population. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with resectable NSCLC, perioperative durvalumab plus neoadjuvant chemotherapy was associated with significantly greater event-free survival and pathological complete response than neoadjuvant chemotherapy alone, with a safety profile that was consistent with the individual agents. (Funded by AstraZeneca; AEGEAN ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT03800134.).

Visualization of Brain Tumors with Infrared-Labeled Aptamers for Fluorescence-Guided Surgery.

Gliomas remain challenging brain tumors to treat due to their infiltrative nature. Accurately identifying tumor boundaries during surgery is crucial for successful resection. This study introduces an innovative intraoperative visualization method utilizing surgical fluorescence microscopy to precisely locate tumor cell dissemination. Here, the focus is on the development of a novel contrasting agent (IR-Glint) for intraoperative visualization of human glial tumors comprising infrared-labeled Glint aptamers. The specificity of IR-Glint is assessed using flow cytometry and microscopy on primary cell cultures. In vivo effectiveness is studied on mouse and rabbit models, employing orthotopic xenotransplantation of human brain gliomas with various imaging techniques, including PET/CT, in vivo fluorescence visualization, confocal laser scanning, and surgical microscopy. The experiments validate the potential of IR-Glint for the intraoperative visualization of gliomas using infrared imaging. IR-Glint penetrates the blood-brain barrier and can be used for both intravenous and surface applications, allowing clear visualization of the tumor. The surface application directly to the brain reduces the dosage required and mitigates potential toxic effects on the patient. The research shows the potential of infrared dye-labeled aptamers for accurately visualizing glial tumors during brain surgery. This novel aptamer-assisted fluorescence-guided surgery (AptaFGS) may pave the way for future advancements in the field of neurosurgery.

Predicting Response to Immunotargeted Therapy in Endometrial Cancer via Tumor Immune Microenvironment: A Multicenter, Observational Study.

Only one-third of patients with advanced MSS/pMMR endometrial cancer exhibit a lasting response to the combination treatment of Pembrolizumab and Lenvatinib. The combined administration of these two drugs is based on Lenvatinib's ability to modulate the tumor microenvironment, enabling Pembrolizumab to exert its effect. These findings underscore the importance of exploring tumor microenvironment parameters to identify markers that can accurately select candidates for this type of therapy. An open non-randomized observational association study was conducted at six clinical centers, involving a total of 28 patients with advanced MSS/pMMR endometrial cancer who received Pembrolizumab and Lenvatinib therapy. Using TSA-associated multiplex immunofluorescence, we analyzed the proportion of CD8+ T lymphocytes, CD20+ B lymphocytes, FoxP3+ T regulatory lymphocytes, and CD163+ macrophages in tumor samples prior to immunotargeted therapy. The percentage of CD20+ B lymphocytes and the CD8-to-CD20 lymphocytes ratio was significantly higher in patients who responded to treatment compared to non-responders (responders vs. non-responders: 0.24 (0.1-1.24)% vs. 0.08 (0.00-0.15)%, p = 0.0114; 1.44 (0.58-2.70) arb. unit vs. 19.00 (3.80-34.78) arb. unit, p = 0.0031). The sensitivity and specificity of these biomarkers were 85.71% and 70.59%, and 85.71% and 85.71%, respectively. The proportion of CD20+ B lymphocytes and the CD8-to-CD20 lymphocytes ratio in the stroma of endometrial cancer serves as both a prognostic marker of response to immunotargeted therapy and a prognostic factor for progression-free survival in patients.

Monitoring of breast cancer progression via aptamer-based detection of circulating tumor cells in clinical blood samples.

Introduction: Breast cancer (BC) diagnostics lack noninvasive methods and procedures for screening and monitoring disease dynamics. Admitted CellSearch® is used for fluid biopsy and capture of circulating tumor cells of only epithelial origin. Here we describe an RNA aptamer (MDA231) for detecting BC cells in clinical samples, including blood. The MDA231 aptamer was originally selected against triple-negative breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 using cell-SELEX. Methods: The aptamer structure in solution was predicted using mFold program and molecular dynamic simulations. The affinity and specificity of the evolved aptamers were evaluated by flow cytometry and laser scanning microscopy on clinical tissues from breast cancer patients. CTCs were isolated form the patients' blood using the developed method of aptamer-based magnetic separation. Breast cancer origin of CTCs was confirmed by cytological, RT-qPCR and Immunocytochemical analyses. Results: MDA231 can specifically recognize breast cancer cells in surgically resected tissues from patients with different molecular subtypes: triple-negative, Luminal A, and Luminal B, but not in benign tumors, lung cancer, glial tumor and healthy epithelial from lungs and breast. This RNA aptamer can identify cancer cells in complex cellular environments, including tumor biopsies (e.g., tumor tissues vs. margins) and clinical blood samples (e.g., circulating tumor cells). Breast cancer origin of the aptamer-based magnetically separated CTCs has been proved by immunocytochemistry and mammaglobin mRNA expression. Discussion: We suggest a simple, minimally-invasive breast cancer diagnostic method based on non-epithelial MDA231 aptamer-specific magnetic isolation of circulating tumor cells. Isolated cells are intact and can be utilized for molecular diagnostics purposes.

Development of DNA aptamers for visualization of glial brain tumors and detection of circulating tumor cells.

Here, we present DNA aptamers capable of specific binding to glial tumor cells in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo for visualization diagnostics of central nervous system tumors. We selected the aptamers binding specifically to the postoperative human glial primary tumors and not to the healthy brain cells and meningioma, using a modified process of systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment to cells; sequenced and analyzed ssDNA pools using bioinformatic tools and identified the best aptamers by their binding abilities; determined three-dimensional structures of lead aptamers (Gli-55 and Gli-233) with small-angle X-ray scattering and molecular modeling; isolated and identified molecular target proteins of the aptamers by mass spectrometry; the potential binding sites of Gli-233 to the target protein and the role of post-translational modifications were verified by molecular dynamics simulations. The anti-glioma aptamers Gli-233 and Gli-55 were used to detect circulating tumor cells in liquid biopsies. These aptamers were used for in situ, ex vivo tissue staining, histopathological analyses, and fluorescence-guided tumor and PET/CT tumor visualization in mice with xenotransplanted human astrocytoma. The aptamers did not show in vivo toxicity in the preclinical animal study. This study demonstrates the potential applications of aptamers for precise diagnostics and fluorescence-guided surgery of brain tumors.

Nucleic Acid Aptamers Increase the Anticancer Efficiency and Reduce the Toxicity of Cisplatin-Arabinogalactan Conjugates In Vivo.

Cisplatin is an effective drug for treating various cancer types. However, it is highly toxic for both healthy and tumor cells. Therefore, there is a need to reduce its therapeutic dose and increase targeted bioavailability. One of the ways to achieve this could be the coating of cisplatin with polysaccharides and specific carriers for targeted delivery. Nucleic acid aptamers could be used as carriers for the specific delivery of medicine to cancer cells. Cisplatin-arabinogalactan-aptamer (Cis-AG-Ap) conjugate was synthesized based on Cis-dichlorodiammineplatinum, Siberian larch arabinogalactan, and aptamer AS-42 specific to heat-shock proteins (HSP) 71 kDa (Hspa8) and HSP 90-beta (Hsp90ab1). The antitumor effect was estimated using ascites and metastatic Ehrlich tumor models. Cis-AG-Ap toxicity was assessed by blood biochemistry on healthy mice. Here, we demonstrated enhanced anticancer activity of Cis-AG-Ap and its specific accumulation in tumor foci. It was shown that targeted delivery allowed a 15-fold reduction in the therapeutic dose of cisplatin and its toxicity. Cis-AG-Ap sufficiently suppressed the growth of Ehrlich's ascites carcinoma, the mass and extent of tumor metastasis in vivo. Arabinogalactan and the aptamers promoted cisplatin efficiency by enhancing its bioavailability. The described strategy could be very promising for targeted anticancer therapy.

Testosterone for Managing Treatment-related Fatigue in Patients With Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma: A Phase 2 Randomized Study FARETES.

BACKGROUND: Fatigue is one of the most common adverse events of systemic therapy in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (RCC). The aim of multicenter randomized phase 2 study was to determine the efficacy and safety of testosterone in patients with fatigue developed during targeted therapy. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Male patients with metastatic clear-cell RCC, normal prostate-specific antigen level, low testosterone level, and no evidence of hypothyroidism receiving first-line sunitinib or pazopanib with fatigue were randomly assigned (1:1) to either testosterone undecanoate (1000 mg) and targeted therapy or targeted therapy alone. The primary endpoint was the mean change of fatigue from baseline to 28 days according to the Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy-Fatigue scale. Secondary endpoints were safety, Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Kidney Symptom Index 19, testosterone serum concentrations, red blood cell count, and hemoglobin level. RESULTS: Sixty patients were assigned to receive testosterone and targeted therapy (N=30) or targeted therapy alone (N=30). As of the data cutoff on December 30, 2019, median follow-up was 18.2 months. The study achieved its primary endpoint based on the significant differences at day 28 favoring testosterone over targeted therapy alone regarding the decreased level of fatigue (difference between groups, 22.5 points; 95% confidence interval, 18.4-26.6; P=0.012). Significant changes in scores demonstrating the enhanced quality of life with testosterone compared with targeted therapy were also observed for Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Kidney Symptom Index 19 disease-related symptoms (P=0.01). There were nonsignificant differences in red blood cell count and hemoglobin level between the 2 groups (all P>0.05). CONCLUSION: Male patients with metastatic RCC and hypogonadism receiving testosterone had less fatigue and better symptom control during targeted therapy.

Novel PD-1 inhibitor prolgolimab: expanding non-resectable/metastatic melanoma therapy choice.

BACKGROUND: Prolgolimab is an IgG1 anti-PD-1 (programmed cell death protein 1) monoclonal antibody containing the Fc-silencing 'LALA' mutation. We assessed the efficacy and safety of two dosing regimens of prolgolimab in patients with advanced melanoma in a multicenter open-label parallel-arm phase II trial (MIRACULUM). We present the final analysis after 1 year of follow-up and additional efficacy results from 2 years of follow-up. METHODS: Patients with advanced cutaneous or non-cutaneous melanoma, including stable brain metastasis, without autoimmune disease and who underwent no prior targeted therapy, anti-PD-(L)1 or anti-CTLA-4 (cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4) therapy were randomly assigned (1:1) to receive prolgolimab in 2 dosing regimens, 1 mg/kg every 2 weeks (arm 1) or 3 mg/kg every 3 weeks (arm 2), until disease progression or intolerable toxicity. Randomisation was stratified based on performance status (Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group 0 or 1), lactate dehydrogenase levels (elevated or normal) and prior systemic therapy (naive or previously treated). The primary outcome was the objective response rate, assessed as per immune-related Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumours by independent central review. The hypothesis that each dosing regimen of prolgolimab has an overall response rate >28% was tested independently for each study arm comprising all patients who received at least one dose of prolgolimab. Exploratory assessment of efficacy, including subgroup analysis, at 2 years of follow-up was not specified in the protocol. This study is registered withClinicalTrials.gov(NCT03269565). RESULTS: Between August 2017 and March 2018, 126 patients with advanced melanoma were enrolled. At main 1-year data cut-off, the median follow-up was 13.8 and 14.5 months in arm 1 and 2, respectively. An objective response was observed in 38.1% of patients (arm 1) and in 28.6% (arm 2). Grade III-IV treatment-related adverse events occurred in 12.7% and 3.2% of patients in arm 1 and 2, respectively. For exploratory efficacy analysis, the median follow-up was 25.4 and 25.7 months in arm 1 and 2, respectively. The 2-year progression-free survival was 33.3% in arm 1 and 30.2% in arm 2, and the 2-year overall survival was 57.1% and 46.0%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The MIRACULUM study met its primary end-point in both the study arms. Prolgolimab showed significant antitumour activity and a manageable safety profile in patients with advanced melanoma.

Safety and preliminary efficacy of the Gam-COVID-Vac vaccine and outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 infection in Russian patients with genitourinary malignancies.

BACKGROUND: To our knowledge, there is no clinical data pertaining to COVID-19 outcomes and safety of COVID-19 vaccination in Russian patients with genitourinary (GU) malignancies. Aim of our analysis was to describe the characteristics of the COVID-19 infection course as well as preliminary safety and efficacy of Gam-COVID-Vac vaccine in patients with active GU malignancies. METHODS: Patients were retrospectively identified at nine cancer centers in different regions. Patients were included if COVID-19 was diagnosed by a polymerase chain reaction. Data from additional patients with GU cancers who had no positive SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR test before vaccination and who received two doses of Gam-COVID-Vac (Sputnik V) between 11 February and 31 August 2021 were collected for safety assessment. Anonymized data were collected through an online registry covering demographics, treatments, and outcomes. RESULTS: The Gam-COVID-Vac vaccine was well tolerated; no grade 3-5 toxicities were reported in 112 vaccinated metastatic GU cancer patients. The most common grade 1 adverse events (81%) were injection site reactions (76%), flu-like illness (68%), and asthenia (49%). Five patients experienced grade 2 chills (4.5%) and 3 patients had grade 2 fever (2.7%). With median follow-up of 6.2 months, two COVID-19 cases were confirmed by RT-PCR test in the vaccine group (of 112 participants; 1.8%). Eighty-eight patients with COVID-19 disease were included in the analysis. The average age as of the study enrollment was 66 (range 39-81) and the majority of patients were male with renal cell carcinoma (RCC). Thirty-six patients (41%) had evidence of metastatic disease, of these 22 patients were receiving systemic therapy. More than half of patients required hospitalization. Fifty-four patients (61%) experienced complications. Sixteen patients who developed COVID-19 pneumonia required mechanical ventilator support. Sixteen patients (18%) died in a median of 23.5 days after the date of COVID-19 diagnosis was established. The 3-month survival rate was 82%. Clinical and/or radiographic progression of cancer during COVID-19 infection or the subsequent 3 months was observed in 10 patients (11.4%). CONCLUSION: Patients with GU malignancies are at increased risk of mortality from COVID-19 infection when compared to the general population. Vaccination could be safe in GU cancer patients. TRIAL REGISTRATION: retrospectively registered.

Overall survival in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma in Russia, Kazakhstan, and Belarus: a report from the RENSUR3 registry.

BACKGROUND: Real-world data describing outcomes of treatment among metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC) patients are limited and heterogeneous. AIM: RENSUR3 registry study assessed real-world data on the use of therapies in mRCC and overall survival (OS) in Russia, Kazakhstan, and Belarus. METHODS: Patients were included in the retrospective multicenter registry study. To be eligible, patients were required to have mRCC diagnosed from January 2015 to January 2016. Anonymized data were collected through an online registry. The outcomes of interest were patient characteristics, treatment patterns, and OS. RESULTS: 1094 mRCC patients were identified. Mean age was 62.3 (SD, 11.2) years. Four hundred and forty-four (41%) patients were 65 years and older. Primary tumor has not been removed in 503 (46%) patients. Subtype of RCC based on WHO classification (clear-cell or other) has been reported in 402 (37%) patients. In total, 595 (54.4%) patients received systemic therapy for metastatic disease. 58% of elderly patients (≥65) were not treated compared to 37% of younger patients. Cytokines and targeted therapy were used in 298 (50.1%) and 297 (49.9%) of 595 treated patients, respectively. Median OS was 11.9 months (95% CI 10.9-12.9). The 1- and 3-year OS rates were 49.6% and 19.3%. CONCLUSIONS: Half of patients received no systemic therapy or had only cytokines for mRCC in Russia, Kazakhstan, and Belarus, which doubtless negatively affected OS in this population. Novel therapies should be considered as life prolonging and a priority.

The role of SAXS and molecular simulations in 3D structure elucidation of a DNA aptamer against lung cancer.

Aptamers are short, single-stranded DNA or RNA oligonucleotide molecules that function as synthetic analogs of antibodies and bind to a target molecule with high specificity. Aptamer affinity entirely depends on its tertiary structure and charge distribution. Therefore, length and structure optimization are essential for increasing aptamer specificity and affinity. Here, we present a general optimization procedure for finding the most populated atomistic structures of DNA aptamers. Based on the existed aptamer LC-18 for lung adenocarcinoma, a new truncated LC-18 (LC-18t) aptamer LC-18t was developed. A three-dimensional (3D) shape of LC-18t was reported based on small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) experiments and molecular modeling by fragment molecular orbital or molecular dynamic methods. Molecular simulations revealed an ensemble of possible aptamer conformations in solution that were in close agreement with measured SAXS data. The aptamer LC-18t had stronger binding to cancerous cells in lung tumor tissues and shared the binding site with the original larger aptamer. The suggested approach reveals 3D shapes of aptamers and helps in designing better affinity probes.

Bioluminescent SNP genotyping technique: Development and application for detection of melanocortin 1 receptor gene polymorphisms.

SNP genotyping based on the reaction of specific primer extension with the following bioluminescent detection of its products was shown to be potentially applicable for biomedical exploration. The paper describes its elaboration and first application in extensive biomedical research concerning MC1R gene variants' frequency and associations with clinical characteristics in melanoma patients of Eastern Siberia (Krasnoyarsk region, Russia). Polymorphisms rs 1805007 (R151C), rs 1805008 (R160W), and rs 1805009 (D294H) were detected in 174 DNA samples from patients with histologically proved diagnosis of cutaneous melanoma and in 200 samples from healthy individuals. All the results on bioluminescent SNP genotyping were confirmed by Sanger sequencing. Some features characteristic of the population were found, i.e. melanoma is mostly associated with R160W or R151C while variant D294H is extremely rare; simultaneous carriage of any two investigated variants is also strongly associated with melanoma; R151C is associated with ulceration and consequently the disease course is more aggressive, etc. The design of the technique allows fast evaluation of any known diagnostically important SNP frequencies and associations across population.

Five-year Survival of Patients With Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma in the Russian Federation: Results From the RENSUR5 Registry.

BACKGROUND: The 5-year overall survival (OS) of patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC) has been rarely reported. The aim of the RENSUR5 registry study was to obtain real-world data on the use of therapy for mRCC and assess the 5-year OS in the Russian population. PATIENT AND METHODS: Patients were retrospectively identified at 11 cancer centers in different regions of Russia (Astrakhan, Barnaul, Ekaterinburg, Kazan, Krasnoyarsk, Obninsk, Omsk, Rostov-on-Don, Samara, St. Petersburg, and Ufa). Patients were included if mRCC had been diagnosed from January 2010 to January 2011. Anonymized data were collected through an online registry covering the demographic data, treatments, and outcomes. RESULTS: A total of 439 adult mRCC patients were included in the present study for analysis. The mean age at diagnosis of mRCC was 60.9 years (range, 33-90 years; with 9% of patients aged ≥ 75 years). The patients were predominantly men (70.2%) and 67.7% had nephrectomy. Clear cell and non-clear cell tumors were detected in 61.1% and 7.7% of patients, respectively. A total of 271 patients (62%) received systemic therapy. The median duration of therapy was 11 months (95% confidence interval, 9.5-12.5 months). Most treatment was with interferon only (n = 145); 105 patients (23.9%) received targeted therapy, and 69 patients (15.7%) received ≥ 2 treatment lines. The 1-, 3-, and 5-year OS rate was 49.4%, 18.9%, and 8.2%, respectively. The median OS from the start of treatment was 12 months (95% confidence interval, 9.7-14.4 months). CONCLUSION: RENSUR5 is a large real-world database assessing the mRCC treatment patterns and 5-year OS in Russia. According to the first results of the present study, we believe that 5-year OS should improve with novel therapies. The limited administration of targeted therapies was reflected by the results of the 5-year survival rate. The treatment of mRCC has changed in the past years with new treatment options significantly improving OS. The 5-year OS of patients treated with immunotherapy and targeted therapy should be analyzed in the real world.

Current and Prospective Protein Biomarkers of Lung Cancer.

Lung cancer is a malignant lung tumor with various histological variants that arise from different cell types, such as bronchial epithelium, bronchioles, alveoli, or bronchial mucous glands. The clinical course and treatment efficacy of lung cancer depends on the histological variant of the tumor. Therefore, accurate identification of the histological type of cancer and respective protein biomarkers is crucial for adequate therapy. Due to the great diversity in the molecular-biological features of lung cancer histological types, detection is impossible without knowledge of the nature and origin of malignant cells, which release certain protein biomarkers into the bloodstream. To date, different panels of biomarkers are used for screening. Unfortunately, a uniform serum biomarker composition capable of distinguishing lung cancer types is yet to be discovered. As such, histological analyses of tumor biopsies and immunohistochemistry are the most frequently used methods for establishing correct diagnoses. Here, we discuss the recent advances in conventional and prospective aptamer based strategies for biomarker discovery. Aptamers like artificial antibodies can serve as molecular recognition elements for isolation detection and search of novel tumor-associated markers. Here we will describe how these small synthetic single stranded oligonucleotides can be used for lung cancer biomarker discovery and utilized for accurate diagnosis and targeted therapy. Furthermore, we describe the most frequently used in-clinic and novel lung cancer biomarkers, which suggest to have the ability of differentiating between histological types of lung cancer and defining metastasis rate.

DNA Aptamers for the Characterization of Histological Structure of Lung Adenocarcinoma.

Nucleic acid aptamers are becoming popular as molecular probes for identification and imaging pathology and, at the same time, as a convenient platform for targeted therapy. Recent studies have shown that aptamers may be effectively used for tumor characterization and as commercially available monoclonal antibodies. Here we present three DNA aptamers binding to whole transformed lung cancer tissues, including tumor cells, connective tissues, and blood vessels. Protein targets have been revealed using affinity purification followed by mass spectrometry analyses, and they have been validated using a panel of correspondent antibodies and 3D imaging of tumor tissues. Each of the proteins targeted by the aptamers is involved in cancer progression and most of them are crucial for lung adenocarcinoma. We propose the use of these aptamers in aptahistochemistry for the characterization of the histological structure of lung adenocarcinoma. The value of the presented aptamers is their application together or separately for indicating the spread of neoplastic transformation, for complex differential diagnostics, and for targeted therapy of the tumor itself as well as all transformed structures of the adjacent tissues. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that these aptamers could be used for intraoperative tumor visualization and margin assessment.