Investigating the effects of surface water recharge on groundwater quality using hydrochemistry and ANFIS model: A case study Minia Governorate, Egypt.

Monitoring and assessing groundwater quality and quantity lays the basis for sustainable management. Therefore, this research aims to investigate various factors that affect groundwater quality, emphasizing its distance to the primary source of recharge, the Nile River. To this end, two separate study areas have been considered, including the West and West-West of Minia, Egypt, located around 30 and 80 km from the Nile River. The chosen areas rely on the same aquifer as groundwater source (Eocene aquifer). Groundwater quality has been assessed in the two studied regions to investigate the difference in quality parameters due to the river's distance. The power of machine learning to associate different variables and generate beneficial relationships has been utilized to mitigate the cost consumed in chemical analysis and alleviate the calculation complexity. Two adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) models were developed to predict the water quality index (WQI) and the irrigation water quality index (IWQI) using EC and the distance to the river. The findings of the assessment of groundwater quality revealed that the groundwater in the west of Minia exhibits suitability for agricultural utilization and partially meets the criteria for potable drinking water. Conversely, the findings strongly recommend the implementation of treatment processes for groundwater sourced from the West-West of Minia before its usage for various purposes. These outcomes underscore the significant influence of surface water recharge on the overall quality of groundwater. Also, the results revealed the uncertainty of using sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), Sodium Percentage (Na%), and Permeability Index (PI) techniques in assessing groundwater for irrigation and recommended using IWQI. The developed ANFIS models depicted perfect accuracy during the training and validation stages, reporting a coefficient of correlation (R) equal to 0.97 and 0.99 in the case of WQI and 0.96 and 0.98 in the case of IWQI. The research findings could incentivize decision-makers to monitor, manage, and sustain groundwater.

The implications of climate change on freshwater resources in the arid and semiarid Mediterranean environments using hydrological modeling, GIS tools, and remote sensing.

Precipitation partitioning in arid and semiarid environments is not well understood due to scanty precipitation, its temporal distribution, and the lack/absence of adequate measurements of the hydrometeorological components. Simulation methods have the potential to bridge the data gap, thereby providing a window to estimate the water balance components. The present investigation evaluates the water balance components of a typical watershed situated in the southeastern Mediterranean for the period 1979 through 2019 using daily meteorological data and a grid spacing of 250 m. Generated runoff results were commensurate with corresponding values obtained using the SWAT model. Computed groundwater recharge is also compatible with recharge values calculated using the chloride mass balance method. Results show that average runoff and groundwater recharge for the entire period was ⁓24 mm a-1 and 19 mm a-1, giving a precipitation ratio of 9.5% and 7.5%, respectively. Substantial interannual variability in the water balance components was observed during the study period which reflected the significant precipitation fluctuations typifying the Eastern Mediterranean. Results show that the period extending from 1998/1999 through 2018/2019 witnessed an 18% drop in annual precipitation, while surface runoff and groundwater recharge experienced a reduction of ⁓34% and ⁓67%, respectively. Although groundwater recharge is a complex function of numerous meteorological and geological factors, the NDVI can provide an excellent indicator of groundwater recharge in marginal Mediterranean environments. This is highly beneficial in areas where climate records are scanty or absent. The presented results emphasize the significant impacts of global warming and aridification on the future availability of water resources in the semiarid marginal climates in the Eastern Mediterranean and point out clearly that water resources in this area will become scarcer, leading to multiple security threats at national and regional levels.

Molecular Responses of Dissolved Organic Matter to Anthropogenic Groundwater Recharge: Characteristics, Transformations, and Sensitive Molecules.

The groundwater quality impacts associated with anthropogenic groundwater recharge (AGR) are of great concern for water management. However, the impacts of AGR on the molecular properties of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in aquifers are poorly understood. Herein, Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry was used to unravel the molecular characteristics of DOM in groundwaters from recharge areas by reclaimed water (RWRA) and natural water from South-to-North Water Diversion Project (SNWRA). Compared with RWRA groundwater, significantly fewer nitrogenous compounds, more sulfur-containing compounds, higher concentrations of NO3-N, and lower pH were observed in SNWRA groundwater, indicating the occurrence of deamination, sulfurization, and nitrification. The occurrence of these processes was further supported by transformations of more molecules related to nitrogen and sulfur in SNWRA groundwater relative to RWRA groundwater. The intensities of most common molecules in all samples were significantly correlated with the water quality indicators (e.g., Cl- and NO3-N) and fluorescent indicators (e.g., humic-like components (C1%)), indicating that those common molecules may have the potential to track the environmental impact of AGR on groundwater, especially these specific molecules having great mobility and being significantly correlated with other inert tracers like C1% and Cl-. This study is helpful to understand the environmental risks and regional applicability of AGR.

Numerical analysis of surface hydrogeological water budget to estimate unconfined aquifers recharge.

Under changing climate, groundwater resources are the main drivers of socioeconomic development and ecosystem sustainability. This study assessed the contribution of two adjacent watersheds, Muse Street (MS) and West Wood (WW), with low and high urban development, to the Memphis aquifer recharge process in central Jackson, Tennessee, USA. The numerical MODFLOW model was created using data from 2017 to 2019 and calibrated using reported water budget components derived from in-situ data. The calibrated MODFLOW model was then used to investigate the impact of high and low urban developments on the recharge rate. The hydraulic parameters and recharge rates were optimized by adjusting the groundwater level based on the observed water level using PEST. The stochastic modeling was also carried out using the Latin Hypercube approach to reduce the uncertainty. The calibration results were satisfactory, with RMSE of 0.124 and 0.63 obtained in the WW and MS watersheds, respectively, indicating accurate estimation of the input parameters, precisely the hydrodynamic coefficients. The study results indicate that, per unit area, the MS watershed contributes 119% more to recharge and 186% more to riverbed leakage compared to the WW watershed. However, regarding total recharge and riverbed leakage, the WW watershed contributed more than the MS watershed. The results of this study have enhanced the knowledge of the impact of urbanization on hydrology and the recharge process in watersheds with diverse land uses.

Coupling hydrogeochemistry and stable isotopes (δ2H, δ18O and δ13C) to identify factors affecting arsenic enrichment of surface water and groundwater in Precambrian sedimentary rocks, eastern salt range, Punjab, Pakistan.

The study area is a part of the Salt Range, where water quality is being deteriorated by natural and anthropogenic sources. This research integrates water quality assessment, arsenic enrichment, hydrogeochemical processes, groundwater recharge and carbon sources in aquifer. Total dissolved solid (TDS) contents in springs water, lake water and groundwater are in range of 681-847 mg/L, 2460-5051 mg/L and 513-7491 mg/L, respectively. The higher concentrations of magnesium and calcium in water bodies next to sodium are because of carbonates, sulfates, halite and silicates dissolution. The average concentrations of ions in groundwater are in order of HCO3- > SO42- > Cl- > Na+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ > K+ > NO3-, virtually analogous to springs water, but different from lake water, categorized as poor quality and unfit for drinking purposes. Based on major ions hydrochemistry, NaCl and mixed Ca-Mg-Cl type hydrochemical facies are associated with concentration of arsenic (4.2-39.5 µg/L) in groundwater. Groundwater samples (70%) having arsenic concentration (11 ≤ As ≤ 39.5 µg/L) exceeded from World Health Organization (WHO) guideline (As ≤ 10 µg/L) in near neutral to slightly alkaline (6.7 ≤ pH ≤ 8.3), positive Eh(6 ≤ Eh ≤ 204 mV), signifying its oxic condition. Eh-pH diagrams for arsenic and iron indicate that 80% of groundwater for arsenic and iron were in compartments of HAsO42- and Fe(OH)3, unveil oxic environment. Arsenic is moderately positive correlated with TDS, sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, nitrate, sulfate and weak negative with δ13CDIC in surface and groundwater, forecasting multiple sources of arsenic to aquifer. Stable isotopes of waters show recharge of groundwater from local rain and lake water. The lower δ13CDIC values of groundwater are modified by influx of CO2 produced during biological oxidation of soil natural organic matter.

Identifying the suitable managed aquifer recharge (MAR) strategy in an overexploited and contaminated river basin.

Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) is a promising adaptation measure to reduce vulnerability to climate change and hydrological variability. However, in areas where the basin is highly polluted, densely populated, and intensely cultivated, implementing suitable MAR strategies is a significant challenge. This study used a geographic information system-based multicriteria decision analysis (GIS-MCDA) approach to delineate the MAR potential sites using seven thematic layers describing surface and subsurface features. Further, basin-specific MAR approach was developed using information such as polluted water areas, canal network distribution for water supply, and cropping patterns. The results of this study indicate that only 17% of the area is highly suitable, while 54% and 29% were found moderately suitable and unsuitable for the MAR approach. Since most highly and moderately suitable sites were falling in the agricultural areas, agricultural-based MAR (AgMAR) was considered a preferred option. AquaCrop model for sugarcane was developed considering excess canal water supply during the grand growth stage to understand the AgMAR potential in the study area. It was observed that the potential recharge under normal irrigation scenarios varies from 135.5 to 272 mm/year, which can be increased through AgMAR up to 545 mm/year depending on the water availability for excess irrigations. This study provides an improved understanding of the parameters that should be considered for MAR site selection and post-GIS-MCDA analysis to assess the basin-specific MAR strategy.

Soil Conservation Service-Curve Number method-based historical analysis of long-term (1936-2016) temporal evolution of city-scale potential natural groundwater recharge from precipitation: case study Algiers (Algeria).

Managing groundwater resources in urban areas requires an adequate understanding and assessment of urban hydrogeological systems (structure, components, connections, and imposed conditions) as a part of a larger, dynamically evolving environment. Urbanization and climate change are amongst the widely recognized signs of such a continuous evolution. Within this context, the present study gives a quantitative assessment of the impact of these two factors threatening water resources in urban environments. The Soil Conservation Service-Curve Number (SCS-CN) method is used to conduct a long-term quantitative analysis of the temporal evolution of the potential natural groundwater recharge from precipitation at the scale of Algiers city for an 80-year-long period (1936-2016). The length of the study period allowed us to account for and analyze important changes in urban settings and climatic conditions within the study zone. Overall, two trend shifts over three distinct periods were found to characterize the temporal evolution of precipitation, several climate change indicators defined for the study, and the potential natural aquifer recharge. A strong, approximately 1:4, linear correlation between the estimated city-scale potential natural aquifer recharge and precipitation was observed for the studied period (R2 = 0.748). Moreover, even though the urban area has known a rapid (2nd order polynomial) increase from 1936 to 2016, climate change (accounted for via the changes in precipitation regime) impacted the city-scale potential natural groundwater recharge with higher magnitudes than urbanization. Finally, the computed climate change indicators show that starting in the mid-1980s, Algiers has started receiving less precipitations, with fewer heavy rain events and longer dry condition periods.

Geochemical and isotopic tracers to define the aquifer's vulnerability: the case study of the alluvial multi-aquifer system of the Friulian plain.

The Friuli-Venezia Giulia Region (north of Italy) is characterized by the presence of high-quality freshwater resources which benefit local citizens, animals, environmental habitats, and also agriculture and production activities. Waters from wells, canal, and wastewater selected in the Fiume Veneto area, through a detailed lithological modeling, were sampled and analyzed to characterize them from a geochemical point of view. The chemical and isotopic characterization made it possible to establish provenance, and the average age of water used, making available the estimation of the relationships between recharge capacity and water use in the Fiume Vento area. The focus of this study is to define the average age of the resources based on the time required for the recharge contributions to compensate the losses induced by exploitation. The results made it possible to support the plans for a water balance using the provenance and average age of water sources for the protection of water reserves formed by the multi-aquifer system of the high and medium Friuli plain. The methodology applied has followed the legislation of the water directive considering the overexploitation due to unauthorized withdrawals of the sampling area.

Mapping potential groundwater accumulation zones for Karachi city using GIS and AHP techniques.

Karachi is the largest industrial metropolitan of Pakistan facing an acute water shortage which is leading to an overdraft of groundwater resources in the city. Groundwater is an important freshwater resource for the city as millions of people depend for sustenance. However, over-exploitation of groundwater has led to decreased groundwater levels within the city leading to environmental issues of depleting aquifers, deteriorating groundwater quality, land subsidence, and harm to groundwater-dependent ecosystems. The objective of the study was to assess the potential groundwater accumulation zones by integrating hydrogeological aspects of the city through nine thematic layers using the Geographic Information System (GIS) based multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) technique. The potential groundwater accumulation map reveals that 20% of the area has a low potential, 70% has moderate potential, and around 10% of the area in the city is composed of a high potential accumulation zone. The upstream regions of the city have the highest recharge potential because of sandy soil and barren land use, which promote high infiltration rates. The urbanized downstream areas have the lowest recharge potential due to impervious fabric. The findings reveal that the MCDA technique can be used with confidence in data-scarce regions for groundwater resource assessment and management. The recharge potential map can help better manage groundwater resources in the city by helping explore groundwater extraction opportunities and could hint at areas suitable for artificial recharge wells/ponds.

GIS-based multi-criteria decision-making techniques and analytical hierarchical process for delineation of groundwater potential.

The profound knowledge and management of groundwater resources is a prerequisite in order to ensure the sustainability of these resources. In this research, multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) and analytical hierarchical process (AHP) method based on GIS were used to determine the groundwater potential recharge model of the Mornag plain (coastal area in North Tunisia). Influential eight factors were used in the groundwater recharge modeling: lithology, land use/land cover, hydrogeomorphology, elevation, rainfall, drainage density, lineament density, and soil. The influence of each factor was examined by the weighted linear combination method. The results reveal a very high to high groundwater recharge potential in the order of 20% of the total area. The validation of results by the histogram method showed that 41% of the total area corresponds to the moderate to very high recharge potential classes. The groundwater recharge potential model (GIS-MCDM-AHP) is useful in better management and planning of groundwater resources and implementation of wells and hydraulic structures in arid and semi-arid areas.

Impacts of climate and land use change on groundwater recharge under shared socioeconomic pathways: A case of Siem Reap, Cambodia.

The rapid pace of urbanization blended with climate change has significantly altered surface and groundwater flows. In the context of tourism-driven economic potential areas, these drivers have greater effects, including threatening groundwater availability. This study assessed the combined impacts of climate and land use changes on the groundwater recharge (GWR) in Siem Reap, Cambodia utilizing Phase Six of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) global climate models (GCMs), DynaCLUE land-use model, and Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). Three climate models CanESM5, EC_Earth3, and MIROC6, out of seven, best captured the observed data after performance evaluation through the entropy method, were bias-corrected linearly for two shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) - SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5. The results indicate a general increase in precipitation under both SSPs, while the average annual maximum temperature is likely to increase by 0.024 °C/year and 0.049 °C/year under SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5, respectively. A similar trend but relatively higher increase is expected for the minimum temperature. Furthermore, the historical land use change showed the expansion of urban settlement by 373% between 2004 and 2019 at the expense of forest and shrubland. Future land use projections from the DynaCLUE model show that the urban settlements in the study area are likely to expand, from their 2019 condition, by 55% in 2030, 209% in 2060, and 369% in 2090 under SSP2 and at double of these rates under SSP5 scenario. The GWR is expected to rise by 39-53% during the wet season and decrease by 13-29% during the dry season under both scenarios. Meanwhile, under constant land use, the GWR is likely to increase more compared to other scenarios, highlighting the importance of land use planning to policymakers and planners. Additionally, the study shall also be important to practitioners and researchers in understanding, planning, and evaluating the performance of multiple climate models in groundwater assessment.

Influence of inter-aquifer leakage on well-injection capacity: Theory and aquifer-scale mapping for artificial recharge.

Aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) is an important water resources management technique that involves the injection of a large volume of water underground. For the successful implementation of an ASR project, a target aquifer should have a sufficient injection capacity, which is the maximum volume of water that can be safely injected. In nature, no aquitard is perfectly impermeable, and inter-aquifer leakage may have a major impact on injection capacity. Despite the importance of determining the injection capacity for ASR planning, there is no quantitative methodology that estimates the injection capacity of leaky aquifers. In this study, we first develop a solution for injection capacity with inter-aquifer leakage based on the Hantush - Jacob solution, and conduct a comprehensive sensitivity analysis to elucidate the influence of inter-aquifer leakage on injection capacity. From the sensitivity analysis, we show that inter-aquifer leakage can impact injection capacity by more than one order of magnitude, depending on the hydrogeological and operational parameters. We then develop a practical mapping methodology that estimates the injection capacity of leaky aquifers. We demonstrate the proposed methodology by applying it to a potential ASR site in Minnesota, USA, where ASR is considered as a solution to alleviate groundwater contamination by PFAS chemicals. The case study results reveal significant spatial variability in injection capacity over the study area and show an average increase in the injection capacity of about 26% compared to that in the nonleaky scenario. We also analyze the uncertainty in the estimated injection capacity due to the variability of aquitard properties and show that the variability of aquitard vertical hydraulic conductivity leads to a larger uncertainty in the estimated injection capacity than does the variability of aquitard thickness. This study elucidates the effects of inter-aquifer leakage on injection capacity and provides a practical methodology for injection capacity mapping.

The impact of land use and land cover change on groundwater recharge in northwestern Bangladesh.

Groundwater recharge is affected by various anthropogenic activities, land use and land cover (LULC) change among these. The long-term temporal and seasonal changes in LULC have a substantial influence on groundwater flow dynamics. Therefore, assessment of the impacts of LULC changes on recharge is necessary for the sustainable management of groundwater resources. The objective of this study is to examine the effects of LULC changes on groundwater recharge in the northwestern part of Bangladesh. Spatially distributed monthly groundwater recharge was simulated using a semi-physically based water balance model. Long-term temporal LULC change analysis was conducted using LULC maps from 2006 to 2016, while wet and dry LULC maps were used to examine seasonal changes. The results show that the impervious built-up area has increased by 80.3%, whereas vegetated land cover has decreased by 16.4% over the study period. As a result, groundwater recharge in 2016 has decreased compared to the level seen in 2006. However, the decrease in recharge due to long-term temporal LULC changes is very small at the basin scale (2.6 mm/year), although the impact on regional level is larger (17.1 mm/year) due to urbanization. Seasonal LULC variations also affect recharge due to the higher potential for dry seasonal LULC compared to the wet seasonal LULC, a substantial difference (20.6 mm/year). The results reveal important information about the groundwater system and its response to land cover changes in northwestern Bangladesh.

Assessment of the spatial-temporal distribution of groundwater recharge in data-scarce large-scale African river basin.

The systematic assessment of spatial and temporal distribution of groundwater recharge (GWR) is crucial for the sustainable management of the water resources systems, especially in large-scale river basins. This helps in identifying critical zones in which GWR largely varies and thus leads to negative consequences. However, such analyses might not be possible when the models require detailed hydro-climate and hydrogeological data in data-scarce regions. Hence, this calls for alternate suitable modeling approaches that are applicable with the limited data and, however, includes the detailed assessment of the spatial-temporal distribution of different water balance components especially the GWR component. This paper aimed at investigating the spatial and temporal distribution of the GWR at monthly, seasonal and annual scales using the WetSpass-M physically distributed hydrological model, which is not requiring the detailed catchment information. In addition, the study conducted the sensitivity analysis of model parameters to assess the significant variation of GWR. The large-scale river basins such as the Omo river basin, Ethiopia, were chosen to demonstrate the potential of the WetSpass-M model under limited data conditions. From the modeling results, it was found that the maximum average monthly GWR of 13.4 mm occurs in July. The estimated average seasonal GWR is 32.5 mm/yr and 47.6 mm/yr in the summer and winter seasons, respectively. Further, it was found that GWR is highly sensitive to the parameter such as average rainfall intensity factor.

Surface water and groundwater interaction in the Kosi River alluvial fan of the Himalayan Foreland.

We report the isotopic composition of the surface water and groundwater of the Kosi River fan on the Himalayan Foreland, India. We have collected 65 water samples from surface water (Kosi River (n = 2), streams (n = 9), waterlogging (n = 29), and canal (n = 4)), and groundwater (n = 21) for δ18O and δ2H analysis during December 2019. We obtained groundwater level data measured at the observation wells from the Central Groundwater Board, India, for 1996 and 2017. The groundwater level varies from 1.0 to 8.1 m below ground level (bgl) and from 0.5 to 9.0 m bgl during 1996 and 2017, respectively. We have used water table fluctuation approach to estimate the recharge rate. The recharge rate in the Kosi Fan varies from 0.7 to 21.4 mm/year from 1996 to 2017. Further, we have used δ18O and δ2H values of water samples to identify the source and the interaction between surface water and groundwater. The δ18O value of groundwater shows a wide variation (from -9.3‰ to -5.6‰) compared to the surface water, i.e., streams (-7.8‰ to -6.4‰) and canals (-6.9‰ to -6.0‰), suggesting mixing in groundwater during recharge processes. Furthermore, we have used a two-component mixing model to assess the fraction contribution from streams and precipitation to groundwater. The estimated fraction contribution from stream water to groundwater ranges from 45 to 83%. We also suggest higher recharge is limited up to the depth of 6 m bgl. We suggest precipitation and surface water actively recharge groundwater. We conclude that marked spatial variation in the isotopic composition of groundwater is mainly due to the local recharge sources and interaction between surface water and groundwater.

Impacts of land-use changes on the groundwater recharge in the Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam.

Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), Vietnam has undergone tremendous transformation in land-use practices in the past few decades. The groundwater-related issues have also been a major concern in the fast-growing southern city of Vietnam. Quantitative prediction of the impact on groundwater recharge due to changes in the land-use pattern of a watershed is crucial in developing sound groundwater management schemes. This study aims to evaluate the impacts of change in land-use patterns on the quantity of groundwater recharge in HCMC. An empirical land-use projection model (Conversion of Land-use and its Effects, Dyna-CLUE) and a hydrological model (Soil and Water Assessment Tool, SWAT) was used for the study. Three future land-use scenarios of Low Urbanization Scenario (LU), Medium Urbanization Scenario (MU) and High Urbanization Scenario (HU) were developed in Dyna-CLUE focusing on the increase of built-up area to generate land-use maps of HCMC until the year 2100. The land-use maps for all three scenarios were then used in the calibrated hydrological model SWAT to get the future recharge in the near future (2016-2045), mid future (2046-2075) and far future (2076-2100). The recharge was observed to increase in the far future of LU by 10% while reduction of 30% and 52% in annual average recharge was observed in far future of MU and HU respectively. It was, thus, observed that change in built-up area has a significant effect on the groundwater recharge in HCMC.

Enhanced groundwater recharge rates and altered recharge sensitivity to climate variability through subsurface heterogeneity.

Our environment is heterogeneous. In hydrological sciences, the heterogeneity of subsurface properties, such as hydraulic conductivities or porosities, exerts an important control on water balance. This notably includes groundwater recharge, which is an important variable for efficient and sustainable groundwater resources management. Current large-scale hydrological models do not adequately consider this subsurface heterogeneity. Here we show that regions with strong subsurface heterogeneity have enhanced present and future recharge rates due to a different sensitivity of recharge to climate variability compared with regions with homogeneous subsurface properties. Our study domain comprises the carbonate rock regions of Europe, Northern Africa, and the Middle East, which cover ∼25% of the total land area. We compare the simulations of two large-scale hydrological models, one of them accounting for subsurface heterogeneity. Carbonate rock regions strongly exhibit "karstification," which is known to produce particularly strong subsurface heterogeneity. Aquifers from these regions contribute up to half of the drinking water supply for some European countries. Our results suggest that water management for these regions cannot rely on most of the presently available projections of groundwater recharge because spatially variable storages and spatial concentration of recharge result in actual recharge rates that are up to four times larger for present conditions and changes up to five times larger for potential future conditions than previously estimated. These differences in recharge rates for strongly heterogeneous regions suggest a need for groundwater management strategies that are adapted to the fast transit of water from the surface to the aquifers.

Using machine learning algorithms to map the groundwater recharge potential zones.

Groundwater recharge is indispensable for the sustainable management of freshwater resources, especially in the arid regions. Here we address some of the important aspects of groundwater recharge through machine learning algorithms (MLAs). Three MLAs including, SVM, MARS, and RF were validated for higher prediction accuracies in generating groundwater recharge potential maps (GRPMs). Accordingly, soil permeability samples were prepared and are arbitrarily grouped into training (70%) and validation (30%) samples. The GRPMs are generated using sixteen effective factors, such as elevation (denoted using a digital elevation model; DEM), aspect, slope angle, TWI (topographic wetness index), fault density, MRVBF (multiresolution index of valley bottom flatness), rainfall, lithology, land use, drainage density, distance from rivers, distance from faults, annual ETP (evapo-transpiration), minimum temperature, maximum temperature, and rainfall 24-hr. Subsequently, the VI (variables importance) is assessed based on the LASSO algorithm. The GRPMs of three MLAs were validated using the ROC-AUC (receiver operating characteristic-area under curve) and various techniques including true positive rate (TPR), false positive rate (FPR), F-measures, fallout, sensitivity, specificity, true skill statistics (TSS), and corrected classified instances (CCI). Based on the validation, the RF algorithm performed better (AUC = 0.987) than the SVM (AUC = 0.963) and the MARS algorithm (AUC = 0.962). Furthermore, the accuracy of these MLAs are included in excellent class, based on the ROC curve threshold. Our case study shows that the GRPMs are potential guidelines for decision-makers in drafting policies related to the sustainable management of the groundwater resources.

Groundwater Management in Coastal Areas through Landscape Scale Planning: A Systematic Literature Review.

Groundwater is one of the main resources for social-ecological systems. As part of the total water cycle and deeply connected with land use, groundwater management faces many challenges, especially in coastal areas. Landscape Scale Planning is an emerging approach for land use planning providing a framework for management based on evidence, given that landscapes have physical and information flows. Landscape Scale Planning embraces the following three dimensions: (i) the spatial dimension centres on the recognition of distinct landscape units; (ii) the temporal dimension entails past, current and future uses of a landscape; and (iii) the modification dimension involves the anthropogenic alterations that affected and will affect the landscape and its features along the spatial and temporal dimensions. Through a systematic literature review of 28 selected publications, this paper explores how groundwater management can be improved through a Landscape Scale Planning approach. The results show that Landscape Scale Planning can be applied as an integrative framework for groundwater management. Landscape units based on, but not limited to, geology, topography, cultural and socio-economic aspects can aid groundwater management to consider the differing spatial and temporal characteristics of the aquifer. Landscape Scale Planning can also favour the inclusion of land use change dynamics in groundwater management processes. To this end, the paper proposes guidelines for applying Landscape Scale Planning to inform groundwater management and consider land use changes.

Complex hydrochemical characteristics of the Middle-Upper Pleistocene aquifer in Soc Trang Province, Southern Vietnam.

Environmental isotope techniques were applied to study the hydrochemical characteristics of groundwater in Soc Trang Province, Southern Vietnam, in frame of the project Improvement of Groundwater Protection in Vietnam (IGPVN). Groundwater samples were collected from various monitoring wells (newly drilled by the IGPVN project), national monitoring wells, private tube wells and production wells. Surface water samples were collected from rivers, ponds or canals. The aquifer system is more complex than presumed as the hydrochemical and stable isotope compositions of groundwater samples in the Middle-Upper Pleistocene (qp2-3) aquifer differ significantly in lateral direction. Furthermore, observed changing redox reactions within the target aquifer from dry to wet season make it probable that some interaction with overlying aquifers exists. The stable isotope signatures of the qp2-3 groundwater samples can be divided into two distinct groups which, respectively, originated from paleo-meteoric water and either was located in paleo-salinized areas of the qp2-3 aquifer or resulted from evaporation effect of recharging water prior or during infiltration process. In fact, individual parts of "the same" aquifer seem not to be hydraulically connected to each other. The environmental isotope data provided neither evidences of hydraulic connection between the rivers and the qp2-3 aquifer nor of recent groundwater recharge in the Province. As a result, saltwater from the sea intruded inland to some extent via the Hau River during the dry season, but it did not affect the target aquifer. Any recharge from surface water to the qp2-3 aquifer in Soc Trang should occur outside the boundaries of Soc Trang Province. Considering the low groundwater transit velocities roughly estimated in this study (3.6 m/year and 7.8 m/year), it may take several ten thousands to hundred thousands of years for recharging water from beyond the Vietnam's national border to reach the qp2-3 aquifer in Soc Trang Province. Consequently, natural recharge cannot help to reduce groundwater declining in the short-to-middle term.