The sound of silence: Presence and absence of sound affects meal duration and hedonic eating experience.

The interplay between external auditory cues in the eating environment and cognitive processes, such as distraction, may influence food intake, but how and the degree to which they do is unclear. We report an experiment designed to investigate the effects of different sonic atmospheres on meal duration, food intake and evaluations, and responses to the sonic eating environment. In a quasi-naturalistic cafeteria setting, participants (N = 248) were eating a lunch meal whilst being in one of four conditions: slow music, fast music, cafeteria noise, and silence. The results revealed that participants eating their lunch while exposed to some kind of background sound spent more time on their meal than those eating in silence. In terms of music tempo, slow music prolonged meal duration compared to fast music, but did not lead to increased intake. The appropriateness and liking of the sonic atmosphere were positively correlated with the overall pleasantness of the eating experience and liking of the food. The findings provide support for existing evidence documenting the importance of ambient sound in relation to food experiences and provide further insights into how individuals perceive and respond to sonic meal environments. Results are discussed in terms of recommendations for future design of eating environments in different contexts.

Modeling of eating style and its effect on intake.

Observational research has indicated that modeling of eating style might occur when eating in the presence of an eating companion. This experiment investigated the effect of bite frequency of a same-sex eating companion on bite frequency, meal size and meal duration. A total of 30 normal weight young adults (m/f = 8/22, age: 21.2 ± 1.9 years, BMI: 21.2 ± 1.6 kg/m(2)) had three ad libitum meals together with a same-sex confederate (i.e. instructed eating companion). Confederates were instructed to eat at a slow (3 bites/min), medium (5 bites/min) or fast (7 bites/min) bite frequency in randomized order. Eating style was assessed through video registration and weighing left-overs. It was found that the participants' bite frequency was similar during all three conditions, i.e. slow: 3.9 ± 1.3, medium: 4.0 ± 1.1, fast: 4.0 ± 1.3 bites/min (p = 0.75), as was average bite size (11 ± 2.6 g). Time eaten of the participants was shorter in the medium (14.9 ± 3.6 min) and fast condition (14.4 ± 3.7 min) compared to the slow condition (16.8 ± 4.8 min) (post hoc in both cases p < 0.01), and intake was lower in the medium (634 ± 183 g) and fast condition (624 ± 190 g) compared to the slow condition (701 ± 220 g) (post hoc in both cases p < 0.05). This experimental study suggests that bite frequency is not affected by the confederate. However, the meal duration of the confederates showed a significant effect on the meal duration and meal size of the participants. It seems that intake was influenced as a result of copying meal termination.

Factors affecting the duration required for meal intake among postgastrectomy patients.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Patients who had undergone gastrectomy often feel tired during meals as it takes longer for them to consume their meals, as compared to the length preoperatively. We aimed to clarify the factors affecting the duration required for food intake in this population. METHODS: Participants enrolled in the study were patients who underwent total gastrectomy (TG) or distal gastrectomy (DG) within the past 5 years. We provided them with questionnaire using the mailing method. The following items were included in the questionnaire: demographics, treatment, total duration taken for three meals, meal contents, nutritional status, and Dysfunction After Upper Gastrointestinal Surgery 20 (DAUGS20) score. The participants were divided into the long duration group (LG) and short duration group (SG) of total meal duration. To compare the groups, a binomial logistic regression analysis was performed. RESULTS: Among the 316 participants identified, those in the middle meal intake duration group and the outlier group of over 180 min were excluded. A total of 57 and 95 participants were enrolled in the LG (101-180 min, mean: 125.4 min [SD 16.1 min]) and SG (30-60 min, mean: 52.7 min [SD 8.9 min]), respectively. Age (odds ratio [OR]: 1.092; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.042; 1.145; p < 0.001), BMI (OR: 0.783; 95% CI: 0.675; 0.908; p = 0.001), and surgical type (TG/DG) (OR: 0.423; 95% CI: 0.190; 0.945; p = 0.036) were determined to be factors affecting the duration required for food intake. CONCLUSIONS: The major factors for longer food intake duration were older age, lower BMI, and surgical type. Older people and individuals with a lower presurgery BMI were more likely to be included in the LG, which suggests that these factors could be associated with physical weakness, such as sarcopenia. Moreover, TG surgical type was more likely to cause a narrower gastrointestinal tract, especially in the area of anastomosis, which prolongs the food passage duration. For better QOL, postgastrectomy patients must be provided with knowledge on not only diet and nutrition but also efficient meal-taking, focusing on the physical decline associated with older age and lower BMI.

Association between dietary habits and incident thyroid cancer: A prospective cohort study.

Background: In addition to the thyroid cancer (TC) risk from lifestyle and environmental factors such as radiation exposure, some studies have indicated that diet may affect TC development; however, previous findings are inconsistent. The objective of our study was to investigate the association between dietary habits and TC risk in a Korean population. Materials and methods: A total of 13,973 participants were selected after excluding ineligible subjects from the Cancer Screenee Cohort at National Cancer Center in Korea from October 2007 to December 2021. Participants were followed until May 2022 to identify incident TC cases. Information on dietary habits and general characteristics was collected using a self-report questionnaire administered at enrollment without keeping track of changes in eating habits during the follow-up period. A Cox proportional hazards model was used to determine the hazard ratio (HR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) of TC risk for each dietary factor. Results: A total of 138 incident TC cases were identified during the median follow-up period of 7.6 years. Of the 12 dietary habits evaluated, only two habits showed significant associations with TC. A significantly decreased TC risk was found among participants who consumed milk and/or dairy products 5 or more days a week [adjusted HR (aHR), 0.58; 95% CI, 0.39-0.85]. Notably, a stronger protective effect of dairy consumption was observed in participants aged ≥ 50 years (aHR, 0.44; 95% CI, 0.26-0.75), in women (aHR, 0.53; 95% CI, 0.35-0.81), and in non-smokers (aHR, 0.60; 95% CI, 0.39-0.92). There was a reduced risk of TC in participants with meal durations longer than 10 min (aHR, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.41-0.83). However, this association was limited to individuals aged ≥ 50 years (aHR, 0.49; 95% CI, 0.31-0.79), women (aHR, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.41-0.90), and non-smokers (aHR, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.41-0.92). Conclusion: Our findings suggest that consuming milk and/or dairy products 5 or more days a week and having a meal duration longer than 10 min could be protective factors against TC, especially in individuals aged ≥ 50 years, women and non-smokers. Further prospective studies are needed to investigate the association of dietary intake with specific types of TC.

Neuronal GHS-R Differentially Modulates Feeding Patterns under Normal and Obesogenic Conditions.

The orexigenic hormone ghrelin increases food intake and promotes obesity through its receptor, growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R). We previously reported two neuron-specific GHS-R knockout mouse lines, namely pan-neuronal deletion by Syn1-cre and hypothalamic deletion by AgRP-cre, exhibiting differential diet-dependent effects on body weight. GHS-R deficiency in neurons elicited less pronounced metabolic effects under regular diet (RD) than high fat diet (HFD). While there was no difference in total food intake of HFD in either mouse line, Syn1-cre; Ghsrf/f mice showed much greater anti-obesity effect than that of AgRP-cre; Ghsrf/f mice. Meal feeding pattern is known to have a major impact on energy homeostasis and obesity development. Here, we investigated the feeding behaviors of these two neuron-specific GHS-R knockout mice under RD and HFD feeding, by assessing meal number, meal size, meal duration, and feeding frequency. Under the normal diet, RD-fed Syn1-cre; Ghsrf/f mice showed a decreased meal size in dark phase, while RD-fed AgRP-cre; Ghsrf/f mice showed an increased meal duration in dark phase. Under the obesogenic diet, HFD-fed Syn1-cre; Ghsrf/f mice displayed reduced meal numbers in light phase and increased feeding in both light and dark phases, whereas HFD-fed AgRP-cre; Ghsrf/f mice showed a decreased meal duration in the light phase only. Consistently, the expression of neuropeptides (Neuropeptide Y and Orexin) was increased in the hypothalamus of RD-fed Syn1-cre; Ghsrf/f mice, whereas the expression of cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) was increased in the hypothalamus of HFD fed Syn1-cre; Ghsrf/f mice. Overall, feeding pattern changes were more pronounced in Syn1-cre; Ghsrf/f mice than that in AgRP-cre; Ghsrf/f mice, and HFD elicited greater alteration than RD. While AgRP-cre; Ghsrf/f mice consumed HFD meals faster during the day (showing shorter meal duration), Syn1-cre; Ghsrf/f mice ate few HFD meals during the light phase and ate slowly throughout the day (showing longer meal duration in both phases). Our findings reveal that neuronal GHS-R regulates energy homeostasis by altering feeding patterns, and differentially modulates feeding patterns in a site- and diet-dependent manner. The distinctive data in these two mouse lines also suggest that eating slowly during the optimal feeding period (dark phase for mice) may be beneficial in combating obesity.

Prevalence of Evidence-Based School Meal Practices and Associations with Reported Food Waste across a National Sample of U.S. Elementary Schools.

Providing meals at school is an important part of the hunger safety net for children in the United States and worldwide; however, many children do not receive school meals even when they qualify for federally-subsidized free or reduced-priced meals. This study investigates the prevalence of several evidence-based practices that have previously been shown to increase the reach and impact of school meals. A survey was sent to a national sample of US elementary schools, with items examining practices regarding school breakfast, school lunch, recess, the promotion of meals, nutrition standards, and food waste, during the 2019-20 school year. Almost all schools that offered lunch also offered breakfast. More than 50% used a breakfast service strategy other than cafeteria service, such as grab-and-go breakfast meals. Providing at least 30 min for lunch periods and providing recess before lunch were reported by less than half of schools. About 50% of schools reported using only one or fewer meal promotional strategies (such as taste tests) throughout the school year. Use of more promotional strategies was associated with less reported food waste in a multivariable regression model accounting for school demographic characteristics. Findings show that some evidence-based practices for school meals are being implemented, but many recommendations are not being widely adopted.

Validation of a Deep Learning System for the Full Automation of Bite and Meal Duration Analysis of Experimental Meal Videos.

Eating behavior can have an important effect on, and be correlated with, obesity and eating disorders. Eating behavior is usually estimated through self-reporting measures, despite their limitations in reliability, based on ease of collection and analysis. A better and widely used alternative is the objective analysis of eating during meals based on human annotations of in-meal behavioral events (e.g., bites). However, this methodology is time-consuming and often affected by human error, limiting its scalability and cost-effectiveness for large-scale research. To remedy the latter, a novel "Rapid Automatic Bite Detection" (RABiD) algorithm that extracts and processes skeletal features from videos was trained in a video meal dataset (59 individuals; 85 meals; three different foods) to automatically measure meal duration and bites. In these settings, RABiD achieved near perfect agreement between algorithmic and human annotations (Cohen's kappa κ = 0.894; F1-score: 0.948). Moreover, RABiD was used to analyze an independent eating behavior experiment (18 female participants; 45 meals; three different foods) and results showed excellent correlation between algorithmic and human annotations. The analyses revealed that, despite the changes in food (hash vs. meatballs), the total meal duration remained the same, while the number of bites were significantly reduced. Finally, a descriptive meal-progress analysis revealed that different types of food affect bite frequency, although overall bite patterns remain similar (the outcomes were the same for RABiD and manual). Subjects took bites more frequently at the beginning and the end of meals but were slower in-between. On a methodological level, RABiD offers a valid, fully automatic alternative to human meal-video annotations for the experimental analysis of human eating behavior, at a fraction of the cost and the required time, without any loss of information and data fidelity.

Predicting Real-Life Eating Behaviours Using Single School Lunches in Adolescents.

Large portion sizes and a high eating rate are associated with high energy intake and obesity. Most individuals maintain their food intake weight (g) and eating rate (g/min) rank in relation to their peers, despite food and environmental manipulations. Single meal measures may enable identification of "large portion eaters" and "fast eaters," finding individuals at risk of developing obesity. The aim of this study was to predict real-life food intake weight and eating rate based on one school lunch. Twenty-four high-school students with a mean (±SD) age of 16.8 yr (±0.7) and body mass index of 21.9 (±4.1) were recruited, using no exclusion criteria. Food intake weight and eating rate was first self-rated ("Less," "Average" or "More than peers"), then objectively recorded during one school lunch (absolute weight of consumed food in grams). Afterwards, subjects recorded as many main meals (breakfasts, lunches and dinners) as possible in real-life for a period of at least two weeks, using a Bluetooth connected weight scale and a smartphone application. On average participants recorded 18.9 (7.3) meals during the study. Real-life food intake weight was 327.4 g (±110.6), which was significantly lower (p = 0.027) than the single school lunch, at 367.4 g (±167.2). When the intra-class correlation of food weight intake between the objectively recorded real-life and school lunch meals was compared, the correlation was excellent (R = 0.91). Real-life eating rate was 33.5 g/min (±14.8), which was significantly higher (p = 0.010) than the single school lunch, at 27.7 g/min (±13.3). The intra-class correlation of the recorded eating rate between real-life and school lunch meals was very large (R = 0.74). The participants' recorded food intake weights and eating rates were divided into terciles and compared between school lunches and real-life, with moderate or higher agreement (κ = 0.75 and κ = 0.54, respectively). In contrast, almost no agreement was observed between self-rated and real-life recorded rankings of food intake weight and eating rate (κ = 0.09 and κ = 0.08, respectively). The current study provides evidence that both food intake weight and eating rates per meal vary considerably in real-life per individual. However, based on these behaviours, most students can be correctly classified in regard to their peers based on single school lunches. In contrast, self-reported food intake weight and eating rate are poor predictors of real-life measures. Finally, based on the recorded individual variability of real-life food intake weight and eating rate, it is not advised to rank individuals based on single recordings collected in real-life settings.

The Effect of Food Unit Sizes and Meal Serving Occasions on Eating Behaviour Characteristics: Within Person Randomised Crossover Studies on Healthy Women.

Manipulating food properties and serving environment during a meal can significantly change food intake at group level. However, the evaluation of the usefulness of such manipulations requires an understanding of individual behavioural changes. Three studies were conducted to explore the effect of unit size and meal occasion on eating behaviour characteristics (food intake, meal duration, number of bites and chews). All studies used a randomised crossover design, with a one-week wash-out period, starting with a familiarisation meal, with the participation of healthy, normal weight females between the ages of 18⁻35 years. In Study 1 (n = 19) three cube sizes (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 cm³) of vegetable hash and chicken were compared. In Study 2 (n = 18) mashed potatoes and mincemeat were compared to whole potatoes and meatballs. In Study 3 (n = 29) meals served at lunch time (11:00⁻13:00) were compared to identical meals served at dinner time (17:00⁻19:00). The largest food unit size lead to significantly increased meal duration in Study 2 (mean difference 0.9 min, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.0⁻1.8), but not in Study 1 (mean difference 1 min, 95% CI 0.1⁻2.0). There was a significant increase in number of chews in the large unit size condition of both Study 1 (mean difference 88, 95% CI 12⁻158) and Study 2 (mean difference 95, 95% CI 12⁻179). Different serving occasions did not significantly change any of the eating behaviours measured. Except for number of bites in Study 2 (R² = 0.60), most individuals maintained their eating behaviour relative to the group across unit sizes and serving occasions conditions (R² > 0.75), which suggests single meal testing can provide information about the behavioural characteristics of individual eating styles under different conditions.

Objective and Subjective Eating Speeds Are Related to Body Composition and Shape in Female College Students.

Eating speed reportedly relates to body composition and shape. Little is known about the relationship between the objectively assessed eating speed and the body composition and shape. This study examined relationships between eating speed as assessed both objectively and subjectively, and body composition and shape. The following variables of body composition and shape were measured in 84 female college students: body mass, relative body fat mass (%Fat), body mass index (BMI), and circumferences of the waist, abdomen and hip. After measuring the body composition and shape, subjects consumed a 174-kcal salmon rice ball. The following chewing variables were measured by observing videotape recordings of the subjects' faces: number of chews per bite, total number of chews, total meal duration, number of bites, and chewing rate. The subjects were categorized into three groups (fast, moderate and slow) according to their own subjective assessments of the actual eating speed. In objective assessments of the eating speed, the total number of chews and the total meal duration were significantly negatively correlated with the body mass, %Fat, BMI, and circumferences of the waist, abdomen and hip. In subjective eating-speed assessments, the body mass, %Fat, BMI, and circumferences of the waist, abdomen and hip were greater in the fast eating group than in the slow eating group. Both the objectively and subjectively assessed eating speeds are related to the body composition and shape. The present study supports that fast eating may relate to gains in body mass and/or fat mass.

Avaliação de intervalos de tempo para registro do comportamento ingestivo de bovinos confinados individualmente / Evaluation of recording intervals to estimate the ingestive behavior of cattle housed in individual pens

O objetivo desse trabalho foi comparar o intervalo de tempo de registro de cinco minutos com quatro intervalos de tempo (10, 15, 20 e 30 minutos), para avaliação dos comportamentos comendo, ruminando, em ócio, em pé, apresentados por bovinos confinados individualmente. Foram utilizados 62 machos Nelore desmamados, confinados durante 112 dias. O comportamento foi registrado a cada 28 dias, durante 24h, por observações diretas com rota de amostragem scan e intervalos de registro de 5 minutos, para o cálculo das seguintes características: tempo de alimentação, tempo de ruminação, tempo em ócio, tempo em pé e frequência de alimentação. Foram comparados os intervalos de registro por meio de variâncias, correlações e médias das características. Observou-se para as características, tendência de aumento da variância residual à medida que o intervalo de tempo entre dois registros aumentou, com exceção da frequência alimentar, em que foi observada tendência de diminuição da variância residual com o aumento do intervalo de registro. As médias ajustadas para as medidas de comportamento ingestivo obtidas nos intervalos de registro de 5, 10, 15, 20 e 30 minutos não diferiram significativamente (P>0,05) entre si, com exceção de tempo de alimentação, que apresentou menor valor (P<0,05) no intervalo de registro de 30 minutos em comparação ao intervalo de 5 minutos. Observou-se que até o intervalo de registro de 15 minutos, as correlações com o intervalo de registro de 5 minutos podem ser consideradas altas. Entretanto, acima de 15 minutos de intervalo de registro, a correlação com o intervalo de registro de 5 minutos cai abruptamente, deixando claro que intervalos de registros superiores a 15 minutos são inadequados para estimar as características de comportamento ingestivo de bovinos avaliadas.

: The objective of this study was to compare five-minute recording intervals with four time intervals (10, 15, 20 and 30 minutes) for estimation of eating, ruminating, idling and standing time, as well as meal frequency, of cattle housed in individual pens. Sixty-two weaned Nellore males housed in individual pens for 112 days were used. Ingestive behavior was evaluated every 28 days for 24 h. Direct observations were made using scan sampling and instantaneous sampling at intervals of 5 minutes. The recording intervals were evaluated using error variance, correlations, and adjusted means. For all traits, the residual variance tended to increase with increasing recording interval, except for meal frequency whose residual variance decreased with increasing recording interva. The adjusted means for the ingestive behavior measurements obtained at intervals of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30 minutes did not differ significantly (P>0.05), except for meal frequency which was lower (P<0.05) in the 30-minute recording interval. The correlations with the 5-minute recording interval were considered high up to the 15-minute interval. However, for longer recording intervals, the correlation with the 5-minute recording interval decreased abruptly, showing that recording intervals longer than 15 minutes are inadequate to estimate ingestive behavior traits of cattle.

Avaliação de intervalos de tempo para registro do comportamento ingestivo de bovinos confinados individualmente / Evaluation of recording intervals to estimate the ingestive behavior of cattle housed in individual pens

O objetivo desse trabalho foi comparar o intervalo de tempo de registro de cinco minutos com quatro intervalos de tempo (10, 15, 20 e 30 minutos), para avaliação dos comportamentos comendo, ruminando, em ócio, em pé, apresentados por bovinos confinados individualmente. Foram utilizados 62 machos Nelore desmamados, confinados durante 112 dias. O comportamento foi registrado a cada 28 dias, durante 24h, por observações diretas com rota de amostragem scan e intervalos de registro de 5 minutos, para o cálculo das seguintes características: tempo de alimentação, tempo de ruminação, tempo em ócio, tempo em pé e frequência de alimentação. Foram comparados os intervalos de registro por meio de variâncias, correlações e médias das características. Observou-se para as características, tendência de aumento da variância residual à medida que o intervalo de tempo entre dois registros aumentou, com exceção da frequência alimentar, em que foi observada tendência de diminuição da variância residual com o aumento do intervalo de registro. As médias ajustadas para as medidas de comportamento ingestivo obtidas nos intervalos de registro de 5, 10, 15, 20 e 30 minutos não diferiram significativamente (P>0,05) entre si, com exceção de tempo de alimentação, que apresentou menor valor (P<0,05) no intervalo de registro de 30 minutos em comparação ao intervalo de 5 minutos. Observou-se que até o intervalo de registro de 15 minutos, as correlações com o intervalo de registro de 5 minutos podem ser consideradas altas. Entretanto, acima de 15 minutos de intervalo de registro, a correlação com o intervalo de registro de 5 minutos cai abruptamente, deixando claro que intervalos de registros superiores a 15 minutos são inadequados para estimar as características de comportamento ingestivo de bovinos avaliadas. (AU)

: The objective of this study was to compare five-minute recording intervals with four time intervals (10, 15, 20 and 30 minutes) for estimation of eating, ruminating, idling and standing time, as well as meal frequency, of cattle housed in individual pens. Sixty-two weaned Nellore males housed in individual pens for 112 days were used. Ingestive behavior was evaluated every 28 days for 24 h. Direct observations were made using scan sampling and instantaneous sampling at intervals of 5 minutes. The recording intervals were evaluated using error variance, correlations, and adjusted means. For all traits, the residual variance tended to increase with increasing recording interval, except for meal frequency whose residual variance decreased with increasing recording interva. The adjusted means for the ingestive behavior measurements obtained at intervals of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30 minutes did not differ significantly (P>0.05), except for meal frequency which was lower (P<0.05) in the 30-minute recording interval. The correlations with the 5-minute recording interval were considered high up to the 15-minute interval. However, for longer recording intervals, the correlation with the 5-minute recording interval decreased abruptly, showing that recording intervals longer than 15 minutes are inadequate to estimate ingestive behavior traits of cattle.(AU)