Survey of occupational hygiene professional practice in Spanish-speaking countries.

Professional credentialing schemes based on experience and examination are used to clarify the scope and required competencies associated with the practice of a profession. National occupational hygiene (OH) credentials developed in 17 nations have been recognized by the International Occupational Hygiene Association (IOHA) to meet or exceed the requirements of a model certification program. To date, there is no credentialing or certification scheme for occupational hygienists in Spanish-speaking regions. To fill this void, a new credentialing body has been created named the Iberoamerican Board of Occupational Hygiene (JIHO). As a first step to the development of a certification exam for a profession, it is necessary to determine the interest in an occupational hygiene certification exam in Spanish and to clarify the most common work practices for those practicing the profession. To determine the proper exam weightings for occupational hygiene competencies needed to practice in Spanish-speaking regions JIHO conducted a comprehensive survey of professional practice of occupational hygiene in nations where Spanish is spoken as the primary language. Surveys were sent to 456 practicing occupational hygienists in nine different countries on a variety of topics. Results indicated that 79% of respondents felt the need for an OH certification exam in Spanish was very or extremely important. The most frequent and important technical competencies utilized in practice were (1) awareness about the health effects of hazardous agents to make decisions about workplace activities and exposures, (2) application of the hierarchy of controls, control banding, hazard communication, training of employees and other methods to reduce worker exposure and workplace risks, and (3) application of principles to recognize and control biohazards in the workplace. The study results have been used to guide the weighting and importance of various technical topics and rubrics on the JIHO exam. Data from this study can be used in the development of certification examinations, to improve international coherence in the profession, and the development of educational programs in OH.

The World Organisation for Animal Health Observatory: a data-driven approach to address the needs of its Members.

This article reviews the Observatory of the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH, founded as OIE), including its objectives, direction and progress achieved so far. It explains the benefits offered by this data-driven programme in improving access to data and information analysis while ensuring confidentiality. In addition, the authors examine the challenges that the Observatory faces and its inextricable link to the Organisation's data management. The development of the Observatory is of the utmost importance, not only for its relevance to the development of WOAH International Standards and their implementation worldwide, but also because of its role as one of the drivers of WOAH's digital transformation plan. This transformation is essential, given the major role of information technologies in supporting regulation for animal health, animal welfare and veterinary public health.

Cet article consacré à l'Observatoire de l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OMSA, fondée en tant qu'OIE) fait le point sur ses objectifs, ses orientations et les accomplissements réalisés à ce jour. Les auteurs expliquent les bénéfices et améliorations apportés par ce programme axé sur les données, en termes à la fois d'accès aux données, d'analyse de l'information et de confidentialité. Ils abordent aussi les défis auxquels l'Observatoire doit faire face et son lien indissociable avec la gestion des données de l'Organisation. Le développement de l'Observatoire revêt une importance fondamentale, non seulement en regard de sa pertinence pour l'élaboration et la mise en oeuvre des normes internationales de l'OMSA partout dans le monde, mais aussi parce qu'il est le moteur de la planification de la transformation numérique de l'OMSA. Cette transformation est cruciale, compte tenu du rôle majeur que jouent les technologies de l'information en appui de la réglementation de la santé animale, du bien-être animal et de la santé publique vétérinaire.

Los autores presentan el Observatorio de la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OMSA, fundada como OIE), deteniéndose en particular en sus objetivos, su orientación y el camino recorrido hasta ahora. También exponen las ventajas que ofrece este programa centrado en los datos para mejorar tanto el acceso a los datos como los análisis de información, asegurando al mismo tiempo la confidencialidad. Además, examinan las dificultades a que hace frente el Observatorio y el indisociable vínculo que este guarda con la gestión de datos de la Organización. El desarrollo del Observatorio reviste una importancia capital, no solo por su utilidad para la elaboración de las normas internacionales de la OMSA y su aplicación en todo el mundo, sino también porque constituye uno de los motores del plan de transformación digital de la OMSA. Se trata de un proceso de transformación esencial, dada la importante función que cumplen las tecnologías de la información a la hora de regular la sanidad y el bienestar animales y la salud pública veterinaria.

The Standardization and Control of Serology and Nucleic Acid Testing for Infectious Diseases.

Historically, the detection of antibodies against infectious disease agents was achieved using test systems that utilized biological functions such as neutralization, complement fixation, hemagglutination, or visualization of binding of antibodies to specific antigens, by testing doubling dilutions of the patient sample to determine an endpoint. These test systems have since been replaced by automated platforms, many of which have been integrated into general medical pathology. Methods employed to standardize and control clinical chemistry testing have been applied to these serology tests. However, there is evidence that these methods are not suitable for infectious disease serology. An overriding reason is that, unlike testing for an inert chemical, testing for specific antibodies to infectious disease agents is highly variable; the measurand for each test system varies in choice of antigen, antibody classes/subclasses, modes of detection, and assay kinetics, and individuals' immune responses vary with time after exposure, individual immune-competency, nutrition, treatment, and exposure to variable circulating sero- or genotypes or organism mutations. Therefore, unlike that of inert chemicals, the quantification of antibodies cannot be standardized using traditional methods. However, there is evidence that the quantification of nucleic acid testing, reporting results in international units, has been successful across many viral load tests. Similarly, traditional methods used to control clinical chemistry testing, such as Westgard rules, are not appropriate for serology testing for infectious diseases, mainly due to variability due to frequent reagent lot changes. This review investigates the reasons why standardization and control of infectious diseases should be further investigated and more appropriate guidelines should be implemented.

A Digital Twin Framework for Precision Neuromusculoskeletal Health Care: Extension Upon Industrial Standards.

There is a powerful global trend toward deeper integration of digital twins into modern life driven by Industry 4.0 and 5.0. Defense, agriculture, engineering, manufacturing, and urban planning sectors have thoroughly incorporated digital twins to great benefit across their respective product lifecycles. Despite clear benefits, a digital twin framework for health and medical sectors is yet to emerge. This paper proposes a digital twin framework for precision neuromusculoskeletal health care. We build upon the International Standards Organization framework for digital twins for manufacturing by presenting best available computational models within a digital twin framework for clinical application. We map a use case for modeling Achilles tendon mechanobiology, highlighting how current modeling practices align with our proposed digital twin framework. Similarly, we map a use case for advanced neurorehabilitation technology, highlighting the role of a digital twin in control of systems where human and machine are interfaced. Future work must now focus on creating an informatic representation to govern how digital data are passed to, from, and within the digital twin, as well as specific standards to declare which measurement systems and modeling methods are acceptable to move toward widespread use of the digital twin framework for precision neuromusculoskeletal health care.

PROCEDURAL STATUS OF PERSONS SUFFERING FROM MENTAL DISORDERS: INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS.

OBJECTIVE: The aim: To identify, group and analyze international standards in terms of regulating the criminal procedural status of persons su!ering from mental disorders. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Materials and methods: In preparing the article, the following issues were worked out: the provisions of international legal acts; legal positions of the European Court of Human Rights regarding the observance of the right to a fair trial of persons su!ering from mental disorders; scienti"c research to ensure the rights of persons su!ering from mental disorders in criminal proceedings. The methodological basis of the research is dialectical, comparative-legal, systemic-structural, analytical, synthetic, complex research methods. CONCLUSION: Conclusions: Universal international standards of human rights retain their validity for persons su!ering from mental disorders; today, a clear synchronization of universal (global) and European standards for determining the procedural status of persons su!ering from mental disorders is being followed; the most justi"ed is a di!erentiated approach to solving the issue of personal participation of a person su!ering from a mental disorder in a court hearing.

Evaluation of a novel optical smartphone blood pressure application: a method comparison study against invasive arterial blood pressure monitoring in intensive care unit patients.

BACKGROUND: Arterial hypertension is a worldwide public health problem. While it is currently diagnosed and monitored non-invasively using the oscillometric method, having the ability to measure blood pressure (BP) using a smartphone application could provide more widespread access to hypertension screening and monitoring. In this observational study in intensive care unit patients, we compared blood pressure values obtained using a new optical smartphone application (OptiBP™; test method) with arterial BP values obtained using a radial artery catheter (reference method) in order to help validate the technology. METHODS: We simultaneously measured three BP values every hour for five consecutive hours on two consecutive days using both the smartphone and arterial methods. Bland-Altman and error grid analyses were used for agreement analysis between both approaches. The performance of the smartphone application was investigated using the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) definitions, which require the bias ± SD between two technologies to be below 5 ± 8 mmHg. RESULTS: Among the 30 recruited patients, 22 patients had adequate OptiBP™ values and were thus analyzed. In the other 8 patients, no BP could be measured due to inadequate signals. The Bland-Altman analysis revealed a mean of the differences ± SD between both methods of 0.9 ± 7 mmHg for mean arterial pressure (MAP), 0.2 ± 14 mmHg for systolic arterial pressure (SAP), and 1.1 ± 6 mmHg for diastolic arterial pressure (DAP). Error grid analysis demonstrated that the proportions of measurement pairs in risk zones A to E were 88.8% (no risk), 10% (low risk), 1% (moderate risk), 0% (significant risk), and 0% (dangerous risk) for MAP and 88.4%, 8.6%, 3%, 0%, 0%, respectively, for SAP. CONCLUSIONS: This method comparison study revealed good agreement between BP values obtained using the OptiBP™ and those done invasively. The OptiBP™ fulfills the AAMI/ISO universal standards for MAP and DAP (but not SAP). Error grid showed that the most measurements (≥ 97%) were in risk zones A and B. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov registration: NCT04728477.

Towards ARTEM-IS: Design guidelines for evidence-based EEG methodology reporting tools.

As the number of EEG papers increases, so too do the number of guidelines for how to report what has been done. However, current guidelines and checklists appear to have limited adoption, as systematic reviews have shown the journal article format is highly prone to errors, ambiguities and omissions of methodological details. This is a problem for transparency in the scientific record, along with reproducibility and metascience. Following lessons learned in the high complexity fields of aviation and surgery, we conclude that new tools are needed to overcome the limitations of written methodology descriptions, and that these tools should be developed through community consultation to ensure that they have the most utility for EEG stakeholders. As a first step in tool development, we present the ARTEM-IS Statement describing what action will be needed to create an Agreed Reporting Template for Electroencephalography Methodology - International Standard (ARTEM-IS), along with ARTEM-IS Design Guidelines for developing tools that use an evidence-based approach to error reduction. We first launched the statement at the LiveMEEG conference in 2020 along with a draft of an ARTEM-IS template for public consultation. Members of the EEG community are invited to join this collective effort to create evidence-based tools that will help make the process of reporting methodology intuitive to complete and foolproof by design.

The International Collaboration for Cancer Classification and Research.

Gaps in the translation of research findings to clinical management have been recognized for decades. They exist for the diagnosis as well as the management of cancer. The international standards for cancer diagnosis are contained within the World Health Organization (WHO) Classification of Tumours, published by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and known worldwide as the WHO Blue Books. In addition to their relevance to individual patients, these volumes provide a valuable contribution to cancer research and surveillance, fulfilling an important role in scientific evidence synthesis and international standard setting. However, the multidimensional nature of cancer classification, the way in which the WHO Classification of Tumours is constructed, and the scientific information overload in the field pose important challenges for the translation of research findings to tumour classification and hence cancer diagnosis. To help address these challenges, we have established the International Collaboration for Cancer Classification and Research (IC3 R) to provide a forum for the coordination of efforts in evidence generation, standard setting and best practice recommendations in the field of tumour classification. The first IC3 R meeting, held in Lyon, France, in February 2019, gathered representatives of major institutions involved in tumour classification and related fields to identify and discuss translational challenges in data comparability, standard setting, quality management, evidence evaluation and copyright, as well as to develop a collaborative plan for addressing these challenges.

Key factors influencing the TCM nomenclature in international standards.

Amid the globalization of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), the English translation of related texts is in full swing. Several representative international organizations in fields regarding standardization and healthcare, one after another, have published a series of international standards for TCM nomenclature. With these efforts, the internationalization of TCM has been dramatically advanced. When selecting parallel texts for reference, translators need to be aware of key factors influencing the English translation of TCM terms in international standards, including the distinctive characteristics of this discipline and relevant influences of international standard makers. In this way, proper standards and reasonable English expression can be chosen for specific terms, thus stimulating the effective use of TCM nomenclature with consensus.

The Human Right to Justice for Older Persons With Mental Health Conditions.

This article explores the nature and extent of barriers to access to justice that older persons experience, including those with mental health conditions. It finds that access to justice-the right to fair, prompt and responsive decisions by administrative decision-makers and equal access to courts and tribunals to obtain timely and effective remedies-is not only an important right in itself but also enables the enjoyment of many other human rights. Yet older persons, particularly those with mental health conditions, face a significant "justice gap." Ageist attitudes, laws and practices interact with other forms of bias such as mentalism, sexism, ableism, racism, homophobia, and heterosexism exacerbating older persons' disadvantage and marginalization, particularly those with mental health conditions, and older indigenous persons. These discriminatory practices, together with the phenomena of elder abuse, all severely limit older persons' access to timely and responsive justice. International and national standards, both general and specific to older persons, have been shown to be inadequate to respond to this justice gap. An international standard in the form of a binding legal obligation that specifically addresses older persons' rights of access to justice is needed urgently as part of a new international treaty on the human rights of older persons.

Cookstove Emissions and Performance Evaluation Using a New ISO Protocol and Comparison of Results with Previous Test Protocols.

In 2018, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 19867-1 "Harmonized laboratory test protocols" were released for establishing improved quality and comparability for data on cookstove air pollutant emissions, efficiency, safety, and durability. This is the first study that compares emissions [carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, total hydrocarbons, methane, nitrogen oxides, fine particulate matter (PM2.5), organic carbon, elemental carbon, and ultrafine particles] and efficiency data between the ISO protocol and the Water Boiling Test (WBT). The study examines six stove/fuel combinations [liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), pellet, wood fan, wood rocket, three stone fire, and charcoal] tested in the same US EPA laboratory. Evaluation of the ISO protocol shows improvements over previous test protocols and that results are relatively consistent with former WBT data in terms of tier ratings for emissions and efficiency, as defined by the ISO 19867-3 "Voluntary Performance Targets." Most stove types remain similarly ranked using ISO and WBT protocols, except charcoal and LPG are in higher PM2.5 tiers with the ISO protocol. Additionally, emissions data including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are utilized to compare between the ISO and Firepower Sweep Test (FST) protocols. Compared to the FST, the ISO protocol results in generally higher PM2.5 tier ratings.

Saccharide dosage content of meningococcal polysaccharide conjugate vaccines determined using WHO International Standards for serogroup A, C, W, Y and X polysaccharides.

Potency of meningococcal polysaccharide-protein conjugate vaccines relies on the polysaccharide content to prevent meningitis. NIBSC, as the official national control laboratory in UK, analysed ten different mono- and multi-meningococcal conjugate vaccines, using established International Standards for meningococcal serogroups A, C, W, Y and X, by resorcinol or HPAEC-PAD assay. Most saccharide contents were within ±20% of their claimed content for licensure with taking different O-acetylation levels into consideration, with only MenC content in two vaccines below (by 60% and 54%) the labelled value, however, previous study showed different dosage was not necessarily correlated to the immunogenicity of those vaccines. This study demonstrated the use of International Standards to quantify saccharide content in polysaccharide-based vaccines with different percentage of O-acetylation. These International Standards are suitable to serve as either quantitative standard or calibrator of in-house standards, with supplied stability data.

Criteria and Process for Initiating and Developing an ISPOR Good Practices Task Force Report.

The International Society for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research (ISPOR)'s "Good Practices Task Force" reports are highly cited, multistakeholder perspective expert guidance reports that reflect international standards for health economics and outcomes research (HEOR) and their use in healthcare decision making. In this report, we discuss the criteria, development, and evaluation/consensus review and approval process for initiating a task force. The rationale for a task force must include a justification, including why this good practice guidance is important and its potential impact on the scientific community. The criteria include: (1) necessity (why is this task force required?); (2) a methodology-oriented focus (focus on research methods, approaches, analysis, interpretation, and dissemination); (3) relevance (to ISPOR's mission and its members); (4) durability over time; (5) broad applicability; and 6) an evidence-based approach. In addition, the proposal must be a priority specifically for ISPOR. These reports are valuable to researchers, academics, students, health technology assessors, medical technology developers and service providers, those working in other commercial entities, regulators, and payers. These stakeholder perspectives are represented in task force membership to ensure the report's overall usefulness and relevance to the global ISPOR membership. We hope that this discussion will bring transparency to the process of initiating, approving, and producing these task force reports and encourage participation from a diverse range of experts within and outside ISPOR.

The challenge of safe anesthesia in developing countries: defining the problems in a medical center in Cambodia.

BACKGROUND: The International Standards for a Safe Practice of Anesthesia (ISSPA) were developed on behalf of the World Federation of Societies of Anaesthesiologists and the World Health Organization. It has been recommend as an assessment tool that allows anesthetic providers in developing countries to assess their compliance and needs. This study was performed to describe the anesthesia service in one main public hospital during an 8-month medical mission in Cambodia and evaluate its anesthetic safety issues according to the ISSPA. METHODS: We conduct a retrospective study involving 1953 patients at the Preah Ket Mealea hospital. Patient demographics, anesthetic techniques, and complications were reviewed according to the registers of the anesthetic services and questionnaires. The inadequacies in personnel, facilities, equipment, medications, and conduct of anesthesia drugs were recorded using a checklist based on the ISSPA. RESULTS: A total of 1792 patients received general and regional anesthesia in the operating room, while 161 patients receiving sedation for gastroscopy. The patients' mean age was 45.0 ± 16.6 years (range, 17-87 years). The three most common surgical procedures were abdominal (52.0%; confidence interval [CI], 49.3-54.7), orthopedic (27.6%; CI, 25.2-29.9), and urological surgery (14.7%; CI, 12.8-16.6). General anesthesia, spinal anesthesia, and brachial plexus block were performed in 54.3% (CI, 51.7-56.8), 28.2% (CI, 25.9-30.5), and 9.4% (CI, 7.9-10.9) of patients, respectively. One death occurred. Twenty-six items related to professional aspects, monitoring, and conduct of anesthesia did not meet the ISSPA-recommended standards. A lack of commonly used drugs and monitoring equipment was noted, posing major threats to the safety of anesthesia practice, especially in emergency situations. CONCLUSIONS: This study adds to the scarce literature on anesthesia practice in low- and middle-income countries such as Cambodia. Future medical assistance should help to strengthen these countries' inadequacies, allowing for the adoption of international standards for the safe practice of anesthesia.

Implementation of OIE international standards: challenges and opportunities for monitoring.

The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) is a major actor in international cooperation to improve animal health and welfare throughout the world. The OIE sets international standards to support Member Countries in their efforts to prevent and control animal diseases, strengthen Veterinary Services and Aquatic Animal Health Services, and facilitate safe international trade. Member Countries face many challenges in the implementation of OIE standards. Poor governance and a lack of resources and technical capacity are often major constraints. Trade concerns raised at the World Trade Organization (WTO) can also be a signal that countries are experiencing difficulties in implementing international standards. In May 2018, the World Assembly of OIE Delegates adopted a resolution recommending the establishment of an observatory to monitor the implementation of OIE standards. This monitoring mechanism will help the OIE to improve its international standard-setting process and identify the capacity-building needs of Member Countries. Monitoring implementation will be challenging as the OIE does not prescribe a specific procedure for implementing OIE standards. World Organisation for Animal Health Member Countries use a range of approaches to implement OIE standards, because of differences in animal health situations, legal frameworks and procedures, trade profiles, and acceptable levels of risk. Given this complexity, this article proposes a 'cross-over' approach to monitoring implementation that would require the collection of information from various trusted sources, such as the World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS), the OIE Performance of Veterinary Services (PVS) Pathway mission reports and the WTO Sanitary and Phytosanitary Information Management System database. This approach aims to document what is currently happening and to identify potential patterns in Member Country practices when implementing OIE standards.

L'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE) est un acteur majeur de la coopération internationale oeuvrant à l'amélioration de la santé et du bien-être animal dans le monde. L'OIE élabore des normes internationales visant à soutenir les efforts déployés par ses Membres pour prévenir et lutter contre les maladies animales, renforcer les Services vétérinaires et les Services chargés de la santé des animaux aquatiques, et faciliter un commerce international sûr. Les Membres rencontrent de nombreuses difficultés lors de la mise en oeuvre des normes de l'OIE. Une mauvaise gouvernance et l'insuffisance des ressources et des capacités techniques constituent souvent des contraintes majeures. Les préoccupations commerciales soulevées au sein de l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC) sont également révélatrices des difficultés rencontrées par les pays pour mettre en oeuvre les normes internationales. En mai 2018, l'Assemblée mondiale des Délégués de l'OIE a adopté une résolution recommandant la création d'un observatoire destiné à assurer le suivi de la mise en oeuvre des normes de l'OIE. Grâce à ce mécanisme de suivi, l'OIE sera à même d'améliorer le processus d'élaboration de ses normes internationales et d'identifier les besoins de ses Membres en matière de renforcement des capacités. Le suivi de la mise en oeuvre ne sera pas une tâche facile, dans la mesure où l'OIE ne prescrit pas de procédure spécifique pour appliquer ses normes. Les Membres de l'OIE recourent à diverses approches pour mettre en oeuvre les normes de l'OIE, dictées par des différences dans les situations zoosanitaires, les cadres et procédures juridiques, les profils commerciaux et les niveaux de risque considérés comme acceptables. Face à une telle complexité, les auteurs proposent une méthode transversale de suivi de la mise en oeuvre, qui passe par la collecte d'informations auprès de diverses sources fiables telles que le Système mondial d'information sanitaire de l'OIE (WAHIS), les rapports de mission du Processus de l'OIE pour évaluer la Performance des Services vétérinaires (Processus PVS) et la base de données de l'OMC de gestion des renseignements sanitaires et phytosanitaires. Cette approche vise à documenter ce qui se fait actuellement et à identifier d'éventuelles tendances dans les pratiques des Membres en matière de mise en oeuvre des normes de l'OIE.

La Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE) es uno de los actores principales de la cooperación internacional para mejorar la sanidad y el bienestar animales en todo el mundo. La OIE elabora normas internacionales destinadas a apoyar el esfuerzo de los Países Miembros por prevenir y combatir las enfermedades animales, fortalecer los Servicios Veterinarios y los Servicios de sanidad de los animales acuáticos y facilitar un comercio internacional seguro. Los Países Miembros afrontan numerosos desafíos a la hora de implementar las normas de la OIE. La insuficiencia de mecanismos de gobernanza y la falta de recursos y capacidad técnica constituyen a menudo obstáculos de gran calado. Las preocupaciones comerciales expresadas ante la Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC) también pueden ser una señal de las dificultades que afrontan los países para implementar las normas internacionales. En mayo de 2018, la Asamblea Mundial de Delegados de la OIE aprobó una resolución en la que recomendaba la creación de un observatorio para el seguimiento de la implementación de las normas de la OIE. Este mecanismo ayudará a la OIE a mejorar su proceso de elaboración de normas internacionales y a identificar las necesidades de capacidades específicas de los Países Miembros. El seguimiento de la implementación no será fácil, pues la OIE no prescribe ningún procedimiento específico para poner en práctica sus normas. Los Países Miembros utilizan modalidades distintas debido a las diferencias en cuanto a situaciones zoosanitarias, ordenamiento y procedimientos jurídicos, perfiles comerciales y niveles de riesgo aceptables. Teniendo en cuenta esta compleja situación, los autores proponen aquí un enfoque «transversal¼ de seguimiento de la implementación de las normas, que requeriría reunir información de diversas fuentes fidedignas, como el Sistema Mundial de Información Zoosanitaria (WAHIS), los informes de las misiones de evaluación de las prestaciones de los Servicios Veterinarios (Proceso PVS) de la OIE y la base de datos del sistema de la OMC de gestión de información relativa a las medidas sanitarias y fitosanitarias. Tal enfoque tiene por objetivo documentar lo que está ocurriendo actualmente e identificar posibles patrones en las prácticas de los Países Miembros al implementar las normas de la OIE.

Facilitating market access: risk assessment, equivalence and regionalisation provisions in the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures.

The World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures contains several key provisions that are important for trade in animals and animal products, namely on risk assessment, equivalence and regionalisation. The risk assessment provision allows countries to adopt, on the basis of a risk assessment, measures which achieve a higher level of sanitary protection than that embodied in existing relevant international standards. The equivalence provision requires importing countries to acknowledge that, while the production methods of the exporting country may differ from their own, they may still provide an equivalent level of health protection. Finally, the regionalisation provision enables countries to export animals and animal products from diseasefree areas, even if other areas within that country have experienced outbreaks of a particular animal disease. This paper explores how these provisions, and the scientific concept of the appropriate level of protection, facilitate trade while at the same time allowing Members to establish their sanitary measures. This paper also provides information on the relevant discussions of these provisions within the Committee on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures.

L'Accord de l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC) sur l'application des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires contient d'importantes dispositions relatives aux échanges internationaux d'animaux et de produits d'origine animale qui concernent les aspects suivants : l'évaluation du risque, l'équivalence et la régionalisation. La disposition sur l'évaluation du risque permet à un pays d'adopter des mesures conférant un niveau de protection plus élevé que celui prévu dans les normes internationales en vigueur, dès lors que cette décision se fonde sur une évaluation du risque. En vertu du principe d'équivalence, un pays importateur est tenu de reconnaître que les méthodes de production appliquées par un pays exportateur peuvent différer de celles qu'il applique luimême et apporter néanmoins des garanties de protection sanitaire équivalentes aux siennes. Enfin, la régionalisation permet aux pays d'exporter des animaux et des produits d'origine animale à partir des régions de leur territoire qui sont indemnes de maladies, même si des foyers d'une maladie animale particulière ont été enregistrés dans d'autres régions. L'auteure explique en quoi ces dispositions et le concept scientifique de « niveau approprié de protection ¼ facilitent le commerce tout en permettant aux Membres d'instaurer leurs propres mesures sanitaires. L'auteure décrit également les discussions dont ces dispositions font l'objet au sein du Comité des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires.

El Acuerdo sobre la Aplicación de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias (Acuerdo MSF) de la Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC) contiene varias disposiciones básicas que son importantes para el comercio de animales y productos de origen animal, a saber, las relativas a la determinación del riesgo, a la equivalencia y a la regionalización. La disposición sobre determinación del riesgo permite que los países, basándose en una determinación del riesgo, adopten medidas que conlleven un nivel de protección sanitaria mayor que el que establecen las normas internacionales existentes en la materia. La disposición sobre equivalencia exige que los países importadores reconozcan que los métodos de producción del país exportador, aun pudiendo diferir de los propios, pueden ofrecer un nivel equivalente de protección sanitaria. La disposición sobre regionalización, por último, permite que un país exporte animales y productos de origen animal procedentes de zonas libres de enfermedad aun cuando otras zonas de ese mismo país hayan sufrido brotes de una enfermedad animal en particular. La autora explica cómo estas disposiciones y el concepto científico de «nivel apropiado de protección¼ facilitan el comercio y a la vez permiten a los Miembros instaurar sus propias medidas sanitarias. Asimismo, proporciona información sobre los debates y reflexiones del Comité de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias en torno a estas disposiciones.

World Trade Organization: notification of sanitary and phytosanitary measures.

This paper provides an overview of the importance of transparency at the World Trade Organization, a basic principle that translates into notification obligations. In particular, the paper details the related obligations under the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, and how it applies to trade in animals and animal products.

Les auteurs offrent une vue d'ensemble du rôle joué par la transparence au sein de l'Organisation mondiale du commerce, principe de base qui se traduit par une obligation de notification. En particulier, ils précisent les obligations prévues en vertu de l'Accord sur l'application des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires et la manière dont ce principe s'applique aux échanges internationaux d'animaux et de produits d'origine animale.

Los autores explican la importancia que dentro de la Organización Mundial del Comercio reviste la transparencia, un principio básico que se traduce en obligaciones de notificación. En particular, describen en detalle las obligaciones que en este sentido impone el Acuerdo sobre la Aplicación de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias y cómo se aplica dicho principio al comercio de animales y productos de origen animal.

International regulatory cooperation: contribution of the OIE and the WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and SPS Committee.

The World Trade Organization (WTO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) play an important role in supporting efforts to facilitate the safe trade of animals and animal products by promoting international regulatory cooperation among their Members. International regulatory cooperation is embedded in the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement) and is an integral part of the work of the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Committee. The OIE plays a crucial part in this cooperation, as the OIE is the WTO reference organisation for international standards related to animal health and zoonoses. The SPS Agreement encourages governments to apply national sanitary measures that are consistent with OIE standards, particularly when making decisions on the importation of animals and animal products. This principle of harmonisation is key to integrating the reference frameworks of the WTO SPS Agreement and the OIE standards. This paper describes international regulatory cooperation, the principle of harmonisation and its expressions, and, finally, the various ways in which the WTO and the OIE cooperate towards the achievement of their goals.

L'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC) et l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE) jouent un rôle majeur dans les efforts déployés pour faciliter des échanges internationaux sûrs d'animaux et de produits d'origine animale en encourageant leurs Membres à faire appel à la coopération réglementaire internationale. La coopération réglementaire internationale s'inscrit dans l'Accord sur l'application des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires (Accord SPS) de l'OMC et fait partie intégrante des travaux du Comité des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires. L'OIE est un acteur essentiel de cette coopération, étant reconnue par l'OMC comme l'organisation de référence pour les normes internationales en lien avec la santé animale et les zoonoses. L'Accord SPS encourage les gouvernements à faire en sorte que les mesures sanitaires nationales qu'ils appliquent soient conformes aux normes de l'OIE, en particulier lorsqu'il s'agit de décisions relatives aux importations d'animaux et de produits d'origine animale. Ce principe d'harmonisation est essentiel pour intégrer les cadres de référence que constituent à la fois l'Accord SPS de l'OMC et les normes de l'OIE. Cet article décrit la coopération réglementaire internationale, le principe d'harmonisation et ses traductions concrètes, et, enfin, les diverses modalités de la coopération entre l'OMC et l'OIE en vue de réaliser leurs objectifs.

La Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC) y la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE), al promover la cooperación internacional entre sus Miembros sobre cuestiones ligadas a la reglamentación, cumplen una importante función de apoyo para facilitar el comercio seguro de animales y productos de origen animal. La cooperación internacional sobre temas de reglamentación, inscrita en el Acuerdo sobre la Aplicación de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias (Acuerdo MSF), forma parte integrante de la labor del Comité de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias (Comité MSF). La intervención de la OIE es fundamental en esta cooperación, puesto que es la organización de referencia para la OMC en cuanto a la normativa internacional sobre sanidad animal y zoonosis. El Acuerdo MSF promueve que los gobiernos apliquen medidas sanitarias nacionales acordes con las normas de la OIE, especialmente al adoptar decisiones sobre la importación de animales y productos de origen animal. Este principio de armonización es clave para integrar los marcos de referencia que constituyen tanto el Acuerdo MSF de la OMC como las normas de la OIE. Las autoras describen la cooperación internacional en materia de reglamentación, el principio de armonización y sus aplicaciones prácticas y, por último, las diversas maneras en que la OMC y la OIE colaboran entre sí para cumplir sus objetivos.

World Trade Organization agreements: a framework for trade in animals and animal products.

This paper will provide an overview of the World Trade Organization's agreements on trade in animals and animal products and of the standards developed by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) for the same purpose. Together, these form an international framework for trade in animals and animal products, which is supplemented by the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement). In this paper, the authors introduce the main provisions of the SPS Agreement, the role of the OIE international standards, the importance of science and the work of the SPS Committee. The authors also explore the relevance of the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade and the Trade Facilitation Agreement.

Cet article donne une vue d'ensemble des accords de l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC) relatifs aux échanges internationaux d'animaux et de produits d'origine animale ainsi que des normes élaborées en la matière par l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE). Ces deux corpus normatifs constituent le cadre international applicable aux échanges internationaux d'animaux et de produits d'origine animale, auquel s'ajoute l'Accord de l'OMC sur l'application des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires (Accord SPS). Les auteurs expliquent les principales dispositions de l'Accord SPS, le rôle des normes internationales de l'OIE, l'importance de la science ainsi que la teneur des travaux du Comité SPS. Ils examinent également la pertinence de l'Accord sur les obstacles techniques au commerce et de l'Accord sur la facilitation des échanges.

Los autores pasan revista a los acuerdos de la Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC) que encuadran el comercio de animales y productos de origen animal y a las normas elaboradas con el mismo objetivo por la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE). Estos textos forman en conjunto un ordenamiento internacional en el que se inscribe este comercio y que se complementa con el Acuerdo de la OMC sobre la Aplicación de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias (Acuerdo MSF). Los autores exponen las principales disposiciones del Acuerdo MSF y la función de las normas internacionales de la OIE, así como el papel de la ciencia al respecto y la labor del Comité de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias (Comité MSF). Además, examinan la pertinencia del Acuerdo sobre Obstáculos Técnicos al Comercio y el Acuerdo sobre Facilitación del Comercio.

The Sensor-Based Biomechanical Risk Assessment at the Base of the Need for Revising of Standards for Human Ergonomics.

Due to the epochal changes introduced by "Industry 4.0", it is getting harder to apply the varying approaches for biomechanical risk assessment of manual handling tasks used to prevent work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMDs) considered within the International Standards for ergonomics. In fact, the innovative human-robot collaboration (HRC) systems are widening the number of work motor tasks that cannot be assessed. On the other hand, new sensor-based tools for biomechanical risk assessment could be used for both quantitative "direct instrumental evaluations" and "rating of standard methods", allowing certain improvements over traditional methods. In this light, this Letter aims at detecting the need for revising the standards for human ergonomics and biomechanical risk assessment by analyzing the WMDs prevalence and incidence; additionally, the strengths and weaknesses of traditional methods listed within the International Standards for manual handling activities and the next challenges needed for their revision are considered. As a representative example, the discussion is referred to the lifting of heavy loads where the revision should include the use of sensor-based tools for biomechanical risk assessment during lifting performed with the use of exoskeletons, by more than one person (team lifting) and when the traditional methods cannot be applied. The wearability of sensing and feedback sensors in addition to human augmentation technologies allows for increasing workers' awareness about possible risks and enhance the effectiveness and safety during the execution of in many manual handling activities.