Renal dysfunction improves risk stratification and may call for a change in the management of intermediate- and high-risk acute pulmonary embolism: results from a multicenter cohort study with external validation.

BACKGROUND: Renal dysfunction influences outcomes after pulmonary embolism (PE). We aimed to determine the incremental value of adding renal dysfunction, defined by estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), on top of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) prognostic model, for the prediction of 30-day mortality in acute PE patients, which in turn could lead to the optimization of acute PE management. METHODS: We performed a multicenter, non-interventional retrospective post hoc analysis based on a prospectively collected cohort including consecutive confirmed acute PE stratified per ESC guidelines. We first identified which of three eGFR formulae most accurately predicted death. Changes in global model fit, discrimination, calibration and reclassification parameters were evaluated with the addition of eGFR to the prognostic model. RESULTS: Among 1943 patients (mean age 67.3 (17.1), 50.4% women), 107 (5.5%) had died at 30 days. The 4-variable Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (eGFRMDRD4) formula predicted death most accurately. In total, 477 patients (24.5%) had eGFRMDRD4 < 60 ml/min. Observed mortality was higher for intermediate-low-risk and high-risk PE in patients with versus without renal dysfunction. The addition of eGFRMDRD4 information improved model fit, discriminatory capacity, and calibration of the ESC model. Reclassification parameters were significantly increased, yielding 18% reclassification of predicted mortality (p < 0.001). Predicted mortality reclassifications across risk categories were as follows: 63.1% from intermediate-low risk to eGFR-defined intermediate-high risk, 15.8% from intermediate-high risk to eGFR-defined intermediate-low risk, and 21.0% from intermediate-high risk to eGFR-defined high risk. External validation in a cohort of 14,234 eligible patients from the RIETE registry confirmed our findings with a significant improvement of Harrell's C index and reclassification parameters. CONCLUSION: The addition of eGFRMDRD4-derived renal dysfunction on top of the prognostic algorithm led to risk reclassification within the intermediate- and high-risk PE categories. The impact of risk stratification integrating renal dysfunction on therapeutic management for acute PE requires further studies.

Frequency and intensity of pulmonary bone marrow and fat embolism due to manual or automated chest compressions during cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

Iatrogenic consequences of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) include sternal or rib fractures, pulmonary bone marrow embolisms (BME) and fat embolisms (FE). This report aimed to analyze the frequency and intensity of pulmonary BME and FE in fatal cases receiving final CPR efforts with the use of automated chest compression devices (ACCD) or manual chest compressions (mCC). The study cohort (all cardiac causes of death, no ante-mortem fractures) consisted of 15 cases for each group 'ACCD', 'mCC' and 'no CPR'. Lung tissue samples were retrieved and stained with hematoxylin eosin (n = 4 each) and Sudan III (n = 2 each). Evaluation was conducted microscopically for any existence of BME or FE, the frequency of BME-positive vessels, vessel size for BME and the graduation according to Falzi for FE. The data were compared statistically using non-parametric analyses. All groups were matched except for CPR duration (ACCD > mCC) but this time interval was linked to the existence of pulmonary BME (p = 0.031). Both entities occur in less than 25% of all cases following unsuccessful CPR. BME was only detectable in CPR cases, but was similar between ACCD and mCC cases for BME frequency (p = 0.666), BME intensity (p = 0.857) and the size of BME-affected pulmonary vessels (p = 0.075). If any, only mild pulmonary FE (grade I) was diagnosed without differences in the CPR method (p = 0.624). There was a significant correlation between existence of BME and FE (p = 0.043). Given the frequency, intensity and size of pulmonary BME and FE following CPR, these conditions may unlikely be considered as causative for death in case of initial survival but can be found in lower frequencies in autopsy histology.

Pulmonary Embolism for the Cardiologist: Emphasis on Diagnosis.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a common condition with high morbidity and mortality particularly if misdiagnosed or untreated. It has non-specific clinical manifestations, often presenting similarly to other cardiovascular conditions. The aim of this review is to summarize the clinical presentation, diagnostic algorithms, and imaging studies utilized to efficiently make or exclude the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism. RECENT FINDINGS: Recent cohort studies have raised questions about the classic presentations of PE (particularly with regard to syncope) or lack thereof. Diagnosis of PE continues to evolve with new diagnostic algorithms, use of age-adjusted D-dimer cutoffs, validation of older algorithms, and emerging data on multimodality ultrasound and ventilation-perfusion (V/Q) single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging in the diagnosis of PE. Optimizing clinical outcomes of PE depend on correct diagnosis of the condition. Given significant variability in clinical presentation, use of a diagnostic algorithm is essential. Use of a clinical decision rule and D-dimer testing can risk stratify patients to allow for judicious use of diagnostic imaging. V/Q scan, CT pulmonary angiography, and lower extremity ultrasound remain the diagnostic imaging modalities of choice with other promising imaging modalities requiring further study.

Risk Stratification for Proven Acute Pulmonary Embolism: What Information Is Needed?

Classification of risk drives treatment decisions for patients with acute symptomatic pulmonary embolism (PE). High-risk patients with acute symptomatic PE have hemodynamic instability (i.e., shock or hypotension present), and treatment guidelines suggest systemically administered thrombolytic therapy in this setting. Normotensive PE patients at low risk for early complications (low-risk PE) might benefit from treatment at home or early discharge, while normotensive patients with preserved systemic arterial pressure deemed as having a high risk for PE-related adverse clinical events (intermediate-high-risk PE) might benefit from close observation and consideration of escalation of therapy. Prognostic tools (e.g., clinical prognostic scoring systems, imaging testing, and cardiac laboratory biomarkers) assist with the classification of patients into these categories.

Diagnostic validity of hematologic parameters in evaluation of massive pulmonary embolism.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to determine the hematologic parameter with the highest diagnostic differentiation in the identification of massive acute pulmonary embolism (APE). METHODS: A retrospective study was performed on patients diagnosing with APE between June 2014 and June 2016. All radiological and laboratory parameters of patients were scanned through the electronic information management system of the hospital. PLR was obtained from the ratio of platelet count to lymphocyte count, NLR was obtained from the ratio of neutrophil count to lymphocyte count, WMR was obtained from white blood cell in mean platelet volume ratio, MPR was obtained from the ratio of mean platelet volume to platelet count, and RPR was obtained from the ratio of red distribution width to platelet count. RESULTS: Six hundred and thirty-nine patients consisting of 292 males (45.7%) and 347 females (54.3%) were included in the research. Independent predictors of massive risk as compared to sub-massive group were; pulmonary arterial systolic pressure (PASP) (OR=1.40; P=.001), PLR (OR=1.59; P<.001), NLR (OR=2.22; P<.001), WMR (OR=1.22; P<.001), MPR (OR=0.33; P<.001), and RPR (OR=0.68; P<.001). Upon evaluation of the diagnostic differentiation of these risk factors for massive APE by employing receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, it was determined that PLR (AUC±SE=0.877±0.015; P<.001), and NLR (AUC±SE=0.893±0.013; P<.001) have similar diagnostic differentiation in diagnosing massive APE and these two parameters are superior over PASP, MPR, WMR, and RPR. CONCLUSION: We determined that the levels of NLR and PLR are superior to other parameters in the determination of clinical severity in APE cases.

Role of Survival Time and Injury Severity in Fatal Pulmonary Fat Embolism.

Pulmonary fat embolism (PFE) is frequent in blunt trauma and may occasionally lead to death. A correlation between fracture grade and severity and PFE grade has been described before, but no correlation between PFE and survival time, fat crushing extent, fat crush grade, or number of body regions with fractures could be noted in this small study. To further examine this, we decided to examine the aforementioned points in a far larger study group.Autopsy protocols of 188 nonresuscitated fatalities with blunt trauma and without right heart injury, which underwent whole body dissection, were retrospectively reviewed concerning the presence and the severity of PFE, injuries, survival time, age, sex, and the body mass index.The fracture grade, the fracture severity, and the number of the fractured regions correlated very well with the grade of PFE, but the crushed regions, crush grade, and crush severity did not. We observed a time correlation between survival time and PFE only in the sense that very rapid deaths were often PFE negative. High-grade PFE was observed most often in patients having died less than 6 hours after the incident, and PFE grades of 2 or more were occasionally noted even after 48 hours.

Prognostic value of computed tomography in acute pulmonary thromboembolism. / Valor pronóstico de la tomografía computarizada en la tromboembolia pulmonar aguda.

In addition to being the standard reference for the diagnosis of acute pulmonary thromboembolism, CT angiography of the pulmonary arteries can also provide valuable information about the patient's prognosis. Although which imaging findings are useful for prognosis remains controversial, signs of right ventricular dysfunction on CT are now included in clinical algorithms for the management of pulmonary thromboembolism. However, the optimal method for obtaining these measurements while maintaining a balance between the ease of use necessary to include their evaluation in our daily activity and the loss of precision in its predictive capacity remains to be determined. Moreover, other variables associated with pulmonary thromboembolism that often go unobserved can complement the prognostic information we can offer to clinicians. This review aims to clarify some of the more controversial aspects related to the prognostic value of CT in patients with pulmonary embolisms according to the available evidence. Knowing which variables are becoming more important in the prognosis, how to detect them, and why it is important to include them in our reports will help improve the management of patients with pulmonary embolism.

Risk profile and clinical outcome of symptomatic subsegmental acute pulmonary embolism.

The clinical significance of subsegmental pulmonary embolism (SSPE) remains to be determined. This study aimed to investigate whether SSPE forms a distinct subset of thromboembolic disease compared with more proximally located pulmonary embolism (PE). We analyzed 3728 consecutive patients with clinically suspected PE. SSPE patients were contrasted to patients with more proximal PE and to patients in whom suspected PE was ruled out, in regards of the prevalence of thromboembolic risk factors and the 3-month risks of recurrent venous thromboembolism (VTE) and mortality. PE was confirmed in 748 patients, of whom 116 (16%) had SSPE; PE was ruled out in 2980 patients. No differences were seen in the prevalence of VTE risk factors, the 3-month risk of recurrent VTE (3.6% vs 2.5%; P = .42), and mortality (10.7% vs 6.5%; P = .17) between patients with SSPE and those with more proximal PE. When compared with patients without PE, aged >60 years, recent surgery, estrogen use, and male gender were found to be independent predictors for SSPE, and patients with SSPE were at an increased risk of VTE during follow-up (hazard ratio: 3.8; 95% CI: 1.3-11.1). This study indicates that patients with SSPE mimic those with more proximally located PE in regards to their risk profile and clinical outcome.

The validity of ICD codes coupled with imaging procedure codes for identifying acute venous thromboembolism using administrative data.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of using a combination of International Classification of Diseases (ICD) diagnostic codes and imaging procedure codes for identifying deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE) within administrative databases. Information from the Alberta Health (AH) inpatients and ambulatory care administrative databases in Alberta, Canada was obtained for subjects with a documented imaging study result performed at a large teaching hospital in Alberta to exclude venous thromboembolism (VTE) between 2000 and 2010. In 1361 randomly-selected patients, the proportion of patients correctly classified by AH administrative data, using both ICD diagnostic codes and procedure codes, was determined for DVT and PE using diagnoses documented in patient charts as the gold standard. Of the 1361 patients, 712 had suspected PE and 649 had suspected DVT. The sensitivities for identifying patients with PE or DVT using administrative data were 74.83% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 67.01-81.62) and 75.24% (95% CI: 65.86-83.14), respectively. The specificities for PE or DVT were 91.86% (95% CI: 89.29-93.98) and 95.77% (95% CI: 93.72-97.30), respectively. In conclusion, when coupled with relevant imaging codes, VTE diagnostic codes obtained from administrative data provide a relatively sensitive and very specific method to ascertain acute VTE.

[Natriuretic peptides and their use in clinical practice according to the guidelines of the European Society of Cardiology]. / Peptydy natriuretyczne i ich zastosowanie w codziennej praktyce klinicznej wedlug wytycznych Europejskiego Towarzystwa Kardiologicznego.

In recent years, assay levels of natriuretic peptides are used in everyday clinical practice. The most commonly used is the assay the concentration of NT-proBNP in conjunction with the longest half-life (120 minutes) and its stability. According to the guidelines of the European Society of Cardiology determination of NT-proBNP were used in the diagnosis of acute and chronic heart failure, risk stratification in acute coronary syndromes, pulmonary embolism and in assessing the overall risk of cardiovascular patients prior to surgery. In addition, there are works whose authors have demonstrated the usefulness of NT-proBNP determination in valvular, atrial fibrillation, and syncope.

Changes in PESI scores predict mortality in intermediate-risk patients with acute pulmonary embolism.

Although the Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index (PESI) accurately identifies 35% of patients with acute pulmonary embolism (PE) as being low risk, some patients deemed high risk by the PESI on admission might be treated safely in the outpatient environment. This retrospective cohort study included a total of 304 consecutive patients with acute PE, classified at the time of hospital admission into PESI class III. The PESI was recalculated 48 h after admission (PESI(48)) and each patient reclassified into the corresponding risk category. The primary outcome of the study was all-cause mortality between day 2 and day 30 after PE diagnosis. 26 (8.5%) patients (95% CI 5.4-11.7%) died between day 2 and day 30 after PE diagnosis. Investigators reclassified 83 (27.3%) patients (95% CI 22.3-32.3%) as low risk (classes I and II) at 48 h. 30-day mortality in these patients was 1.2% (95% CI 0-3.5%) as opposed to 11.3% (95% CI 7.1-15.5%) in those who remained high risk. The net improvement in reclassification was estimated at 54% (p<0.001). In a cohort of intermediate-risk patients with acute PE, calculation of the PESI(48) allows identification of those patients at very low risk of dying during the first month of follow-up.

[Scores and stages in pneumology]. / Scores und Stadien in der Pneumologie.

Useful scales and classifications for patients with pulmonary diseases are discussed. The modified Medical Research Council breathlessness scale (mMRC) is a measure of disability in lung patients. The GOLD classifications, the COPD-Assessment Test (CAT) and the BODE Index are important to classify the severity of COPD and to measure the disability of these patients. The Geneva score is a clinical prediction rule used in determining the pre-test probability of pulmonary embolism. The Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index (PESI) is a scoring system used to predict 30 day mortality in patients with pulmonary embolism. The Epworth Sleepiness Scale is intended to measure daytime sleepiness in patients with sleep apnea syndrome. The Asthma Controll Test (ACT) determines if asthma symptoms are well controlled.

Novel Risk Stratification and Hemodynamic Profiling in Acute Pulmonary Embolism: A Proposed Classification Inspired by Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Intervention Shock Staging.

Treatment options for patients with acute pulmonary embolism (PE) and right ventricular shock (RVS) have grown exponentially. Therapy options include anticoagulation, systemic thrombolysis, catheter-based thrombolysis/ thrombectomy, and may include short-term mechanical circulatory support. However, the incidence of short-term morbidity and mortality has not changed despite the emergence of several advanced therapies in acute PE. This is possibly due to the inclusion of heterogenous populations in research studies without differentiation based on the acuity/severity of presentation. We propose a novel classification for PE-RVS to allow for standardizing appropriate therapy escalation and better communication of the severity among cardiovascular critical care, and emergency health care professionals.

Saddle pulmonary embolism: is it as bad as it looks? A community hospital experience.

BACKGROUND: Saddle pulmonary embolism represents a large clot and a risk for sudden hemodynamic collapse. However, the clinical presentation and outcomes vary widely. On the basis of the findings of right heart dysfunction on echocardiograms, computed tomography angiography, or cardiac enzyme elevation, some argue for the use of thrombolytics or catheter thrombectomy even for hemodynamically stable patients. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the outcomes and management of patients with saddle pulmonary embolism, including radiographic appearance (estimate of clot burden) and echocardiographic features. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: This study is a retrospective evaluation of all patients with computed tomography angiography positive for pulmonary embolism from June 1, 2004, to February 28, 2009. Two radiologists selected those with saddle pulmonary embolism and evaluated the clot burden score. The clinical information, echocardiography, treatments, and outcomes of these patients were extracted via chart review. Saddle pulmonary embolism was found in 37 of 680 patients (5.4%, 95% confidence interval 4% to 7%) with documented pulmonary embolism on computed tomography angiography. For patients with saddle pulmonary embolism, the median age was 60 yrs and 41% were males. Major comorbidities were neurologic (24%), recent surgery (24%), and malignancy (22%). Transient hypotension occurred in 14% and persistent shock in 8%. One patient required mechanical ventilation. Echocardiography was performed in 27 patients (73%). Right ventricle enlargement and dysfunction were found in 78% and elevated pulmonary artery systolic pressure in 67%. Computed tomography angiography demonstrated a high median pulmonary artery clot burden score of 31 points. The median right ventricle to left ventricle diameter ratio was 1.39. Inferior vena cava filters were placed in 46%. Unfractionated heparin was administered in 33 (87%) and thrombolytics in four (11%). The median hospital length of stay was 9 days. Two of 37 saddle pulmonary embolism patients (5.4%) died in the hospital (95% confidence interval 0.7% to 18%). CONCLUSIONS: Most patients with saddle pulmonary embolism found on computed tomography angiography responded to the standard management for pulmonary embolism with unfractionated heparin. Although ominous in appearance, most patients with saddle pulmonary embolism are hemodynamically stable and do not require thrombolytic therapy or other interventions.

The modified Clavien classification system: a standardized platform for reporting complications in transurethral resection of the prostate.

PURPOSE: The aim of the study was to evaluate the applicability of the modified Clavien classification system (CCS) in grading perioperative complications of transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP). METHODS: All patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia submitted to monopolar TURP from January 2006 to February 2008 at a non-academic center were evaluated for complications occurring up to the end of the first postoperative month. All complications were classified according to the modified CCS independently by two urologists, and the final decision was based on consensus. If multiple complications per patient occurred, categorization was done in more than one grade. Results were presented as complication rates per grade. RESULTS: Forty-four complications were recorded in 31 out of 198 patients (overall perioperative morbidity rate: 15.7%), and their grading was generally easy, non-time-consuming and straightforward. Most of them were classified as grade I (59.1%) and II (29.5%). Higher grade complications were scarce (grade III: 2.3% and grade IV: 6.8%, respectively) There was one death (grade V: 2.3%) due to acute myocardial infarction (overall mortality rate: 0.5%). Negative outcomes such as mild dysuria during this early postoperative period or retrograde ejaculation were considered sequelae and were not recorded. Nobody was complicated with severe dysuria. There was one re-operation due to residual adenoma (0.5%). CONCLUSIONS: The modified CCS represents a straightforward and easily applicable tool that may help urologists to classify the complications of TURP in a more objective and detailed way. It may serve as a standardized platform of communication among clinicians allowing for sound comparisons.

Incidence, clinical characteristics, and long-term prognosis of travel-associated pulmonary embolism.

AIMS: Prolonged air travel is considered a risk factor for pulmonary embolism (PE). The clinical characteristics as well as the long-term prognosis of patients suffering from travel-associated PE ('economy-class syndrome', ECS) remain largely unknown. Owing to its proximity, our hospital is the primary referral centre for Frankfurt Airport, Europe's third-largest airport. The goal of our study was to follow-up all patients with ECS, who were admitted to our hospital between 1997 and 2006. METHODS AND RESULTS: We systematically reviewed all medical charts from patients presenting with acute PE to our emergency room or intensive care unit (ICU) and performed a telephone follow-up on patients discharged alive. Together with the data provided from the statistics department of Fraport Inc., the operating company of the Frankfurt International Airport, we were also able to put the medical data in context with the corresponding number of passengers and flight distances. A total of 257 patients with acute PE were admitted to our emergency and ICU between 1997 and 2006. Out of these, 62 patients suffered from ECS (45 flight-associated PE and 17 from other travel-associated PE). ECS patients were prone to more haemodynamic relevant acute events, reflected by a higher rate of initial cardiopulmonary resuscitation (4.8% vs. 1.5%; P = 0.153) and higher percentage of massive PE (8% vs. 3%; P = 0.064). Nevertheless, intrahospital mortality was similar in both groups (ECS 4.8%, others 4.1%; P = 0.730). Interestingly, the long-term outcome of ECS patients was excellent (Kaplan-Meier analysis; P log-rank: 0.008 vs. other entities). In general, ECS was a rare event (one event/5 million passengers), where long-haul flights over 5000 km lead to a 17-fold risk increase compared with shorter flights. CONCLUSIONS: Travel-associated PE was a common cause of PE in our hospital, with patients showing excellent long-term prognosis after discharge. The risk of ECS is rather low and strictly dependent on the flight distance.

Balloon pulmonary angioplasty for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension.

Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH) is classified as Group-4 pulmonary hypertension caused by organized thrombi in pulmonary arteries. Pulmonary endarterectomy (PEA) has been shown to improve the symptoms and prognoses of patients with proximal CTEPH. The soluble guanylate cyclase stimulator (riociguat) is the sole FDA-licensed drug for the treatment of CTEPH, and guidelines recommend its use for patients with inoperable CTEPH or residual or recurrent pulmonary hypertension following PEA. Balloon pulmonary angioplasty (BPA) is a new procedure, but it is a promising alternative to PEA, especially in patients with inoperable CTEPH. This review summarizes the history, indications, procedures and complications of BPA. Finally, we discuss the future perspective of BPA for better management of CTEPH.