Sodium Hypochlorite Accidents in Endodontic Practice: Clinical Evidence and State of the Art.

Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is widely utilized in endodontics for its effective antimicrobial properties and ability to dissolve necrotic tissues. However, its use is not devoid of risks, including potential severe tissue damage and chemical burns. This systematic review evaluates the documented risks of using NaOCl in endodontic treatments. It compares its safety and efficacy with other endodontic irrigants, such as EDTA and chlorhexidine. This review followed the "Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses" guidelines and registered with PROSPERO. Comprehensive searches were performed in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and CENTRAL databases, with additional hand searches in grey literature. Studies were selected reporting adverse effects related to NaOCl used in endodontic procedures, ranging from randomized controlled trials to case reports. Data extraction and risk of bias assessment were systematically performed using standardized tools. Seventeen studies were included, detailing instances from chemical burns to severe allergic reactions and tissue necrosis associated with NaOCl use. The risk of bias was predominantly low across the studies. Sodium hypochlorite demonstrated a higher efficacy in microbial eradication and tissue dissolution than other irrigants, though it also showed a higher incidence of severe complications when mishandled. Sodium hypochlorite remains a cornerstone in endodontic disinfection due to its potent antimicrobial and tissue dissolution properties. However, its application must be meticulously managed to prevent complications. Future research should focus on optimizing concentrations and application techniques to enhance safety and effectiveness, potentially integrating safer alternatives or complementary solutions like EDTA to mitigate risks while preserving irrigant benefits.

Bacterial Contamination Control with Sodium Hypochlorite and Jet Lavage Irrigation in a Severe Stage 4 Pelvic Pressure Injury: A Case Report.

ABSTRACT: This case report reviews the effect of combining a 250-cc bottle of standard antimicrobial, buffered sodium hypochlorite with a surgical method, low-pressure jet lavage irrigation in the outpatient setting to control difficult wound contamination. A 73-year-old man had been in treatment for over 8 years, undergoing at least 18 surgical wound debridement procedures for an extensive undermined pelvic pressure injury involving the sacrum, ischium, and greater trochanter. Cultures and polymerase chain reaction diagnostics revealed a multibacterial presence. Autofluorescent imaging (AFI) was used in 21 examinations performed after a 72-hour delay over a long weekend. The AFI contamination exceeded log 4 colony-forming units/g of tissue in all pretreatment examinations and was reduced to less than log 2 colony-forming units in 6 of 21 examinations, with the remaining 15 showing an estimated 80% or higher removal of the bacterial porphyrin "red" appearance. A total of 54 AFI examinations were performed using the combination treatment, and no adverse reactions were encountered. Treatment paradigms can be improved with a multifactorial approach.

Effect of different floatation solutions on E. tenella oocyst purification and optimization of centrifugation conditions for improved recovery of oocysts and sporocysts.

Saturated salt floatation method is widely used for coccidian oocyst purification. However, the repeated procedures and inefficient oocysts recovery rate are a continuous challenge. This study aimed to investigate the best suitable floatation solution, along with optimal centrifugation speed and time for Eimeria tenella (E. tenella) oocyst and sporocyst purification. Different floatation solutions i-e, saturated salt, Sheather's sugar and sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) at 20-60% concentrations were used to purify oocyst. It was found that about 96.99% oocysts (8609×g for 10 min) were recovered under these conditions without any effect on the viability of sporocysts. The recovery rate of oocysts using 50% NaClO (V/V) was significantly higher than 35% saturated salt flotation solution (P < 0.05). The optimal method for purification of oocysts based our experimentation was centrifugation at 8609×g for 3 min using 50% NaClO floatation solution, and the optimized centrifugation conditions for improved recovery of sporocysts (about 99.3%) were at 2152×g for 5 min. The present study provided a better method for the coccidian oocyst purification, which could be successfully adopted as a better alternative to existing techniques commonly used for investigations/research pertaining to coccidia.

The effects of various irrigation protocols on root canal wall adaptation and apical microleakage in primary teeth.

Objective: The objective of this study is to evaluate the wall adaptation and apical microleakage values following the application of various irrigation protocols in primary teeth.Material and methods: For the two parts of the study, extracted upper incisor primary teeth were randomly included to the 1% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), 10% ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)+1% NaOCl, 6% citric acid (CA)+1% NaOCl and 0.9% physiological saline (PS) groups. Canal wall adaptation and apical microleakage were assessed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and stereomicroscope, respectively.Results: 6% CA + 1% NaOCl group was found to be the most successful irrigation protocol in providing strong canal wall adaptation and less apical microleakage, followed by 10% EDTA +1% NaOCl. 6% CA +1% NaOCl was significantly superior regarding apical microleakage (p < .05).Conclusions: Due to the ability to provide appropriate changes in the root canal walls to make a well-adapted and leak-proof canal filling, 6% CA + 1% NaOCl can be recommended as an irrigation protocol in primary teeth.

The Formation, Persistence, and Resistance to Disinfectant of the Erysipelothrix piscisicarius Biofilm.

Erysipelothrix piscisicarius is an emergent pathogen in fish aquaculture, particularly in the ornamental fish trade. Very little is known on the biology of this pathogen; however, the recurrence of infection and disease outbreaks after removing the fish from a system and disinfecting the tank suggest its environmental persistence. Moreover, biofilm lifestyle in E. piscisicarius has been suspected but not previously shown. The purpose of this study was to investigate the formation of biofilms on an abiotic surface in Erysipelothrix spp. We used hydroxyapatite-coated plastic pegs to demonstrate the attachment, growth, and persistence of E. piscisicarius on abiotic surfaces in both fresh and marine environments and to investigate the susceptibility of this pathogen to different disinfectants that are used in the aquaculture industry. E. piscisicarius formed biofilms that persisted significantly longer than planktonic cells did in both freshwater and saltwater over a period of 120 h (P = 0.004). The biofilms were also more resistant to disinfectants than the planktonic cells were. Hydrogen peroxide was the most effective disinfectant against E. piscisicarius, and it eradicated the biofilms and planktonic cells at the recommended concentrations. In contrast, Virkon and bleach were able to eradicate only the planktonic cells. This information should be taken into consideration when developing biosecurity protocols in aquaculture systems, aquariums, and private collections.

Comparison of bleach, acetic acid, and other topical anti-infective treatments in pediatric atopic dermatitis: A retrospective cohort study on antibiotic exposure.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Skin infection is common in atopic dermatitis (AD), often necessitating treatment with systemic antibiotics. Topical adjunctive therapies such as dilute bleach baths are increasingly recommended, and topical dilute acetic acid (AA) has not been widely studied. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether various topical anti-infective bathing recommendations were associated with decreased systemic antibiotic exposure in pediatric AD, as well as evaluate topical anti-infective recommendations over time within our institution. METHODS: Clinical data were extracted from charts of pediatric patients from 1/1/2000 to 12/31/2005 and 1/1/2009 to 12/31/2014 who visited outpatient dermatology clinics at Mayo Clinic, Rochester, a tertiary referral center. Recommendations for topical anti-infectives (dilute AA, dilute bleach, other, or none) at any time after patient had clinically proven or suspected AD superinfection were recorded as exposures to topical anti-infective. Primary outcome was the number of systemic antibiotic courses in a 1-year period. RESULTS: Of 1111 patients with AD, 753 met inclusion criteria (303 in 2000-2005; 450 in 2009-2014). Of these, 351 (46.6%) had culture-proven or clinically suspected superinfection. Topical anti-infective recommendations increased between the time periods (23.3% to 79.2%; P < 0.001) and number of courses of systemic antibiotics decreased (1.9 per year vs 1.5 per year, P = 0.010). Number of systemic antibiotic courses did not differ between those who received bathing recommendations and those who did not, nor between different anti-infective groups (P = 0.398). CONCLUSIONS: Practice behaviors have changed, and topical anti-infectives are now commonly recommended. Neither dilute AA nor bleach baths were associated with fewer subsequent exposures to systemic antibiotics in the treatment of pediatric AD.

Influence of size and taper of basic root canal preparation on root canal cleanliness: a scanning electron microscopy study.

AIM: To investigate whether a minimally invasive basic root canal preparation technique has an influence on root canal cleanliness in extracted mandibular molar teeth. METHODOLOGY: A total of 80 root canals (40 mesio-buccal and 40 mesio-lingual) from 40 mandibular molars were included. The teeth were divided equally into four different experimental groups depending on the subsequently root canal preparation technique: Group 1: a basic preparation was performed up to size 20, .04 taper; Group 2: a basic preparation was performed up to size 2, .06 taper; Group 3: a basic preparation was performed up to size 25, .04 taper; and Group 4: a basic preparation was performed up to size 25, .06 taper. After the use of each instrument, each root canal was irrigated with 2.5 mL of 6% sodium hypochlorite for 30 s. Then, 1 mL NaOCl was activated for 20 s using an EDDY sonic tip. Final irrigation was performed using a total of 5 mL of 17% EDTA solution. The roots were then split longitudinally and all root canal thirds were observed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to evaluate the presence of superficial debris and smear layer using a scoring system. Data were statistically analysed using the Kruskal-Wallis and Bonferroni tests with a level of significance set at P < 0.05. RESULTS: In all groups, there was significantly more residual debris and smear layer in the apical third (P < 0.05), with no differences between the middle and coronal thirds (P > 0.05). For both the parameters analysed, there was no difference amongst the groups in the middle and coronal thirds (P > 0.05), whilst in the apical third significantly less debris and smear layer was found in specimens from groups 3 and 4 than for groups 1 and 2 (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: All basic root canal preparation techniques were associated with less debris and smear layer on the canal walls in the middle and coronal thirds, without differences among them. Even though debris and smear layer were always present in the apical third, an apical size of 25 resulted in significantly cleaner canals walls compared to a size 20.

Influence of dentine debris and organic tissue on the properties of sodium hypochlorite solutions.

AIM: To determine the free available chlorine of 2.5% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) alone and combined with 9% etidronic acid (HEDP) in the presence of inhibitors, organic tissue and organic tissue plus dentine debris; to evaluate the influence of dentine debris on the tissue-dissolving capacity of both NaOCl solutions; and to determine the antimicrobial action of these solutions when in contact with organic tissue and organic tissue plus dentine debris. METHODOLOGY: The available chlorine of the solutions over time in the absence and presence of the inhibitors was measured using a titration method. The organic tissue dissolution by the solutions alone and in the presence of dentine powder was evaluated by weighing bovine tissue specimens before and after exposure to the solutions for 3 and 10 min. For the antimicrobial activity, biofilms of Enterococcus faecalis were exposed to the solutions for 3 min in the absence and presence of organic tissue and organic tissue + dentine debris. The biovolume and percentage of damaged membrane cells of the biofilm were measured by means of confocal microscopy and the live/dead technique. Nonparametric tests were used to determine statistical differences (P < 0.05). RESULTS: Both inhibitors consumed the free available chlorine of the solutions over time. The presence of dentine debris significantly reduced the tissue dissolution capacity of the NaOCl solutions (P < 0.05). The percentages of biovolume reduction were not affected by the presence of the inhibitors in the two NaOCl solutions, whereas the percentage of damaged membrane cells was significantly reduced (P < 0.001). Overall, a similar behaviour was observed in the NaOCl and NaOCl/HEDP groups. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of organic tissue and organic tissue + dentine debris favoured rapid consumption of the free chlorine of NaOCl and NaOCl/HEDP. This resulted in a decreased ability to dissolve organic tissue without affecting the short-term antimicrobial activity.

Is it really penetration? Part 2. Locomotion of Enterococcus faecalis cells within dentinal tubules of bovine teeth.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present vitro study was to examine the question whether devitalized Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis) cells can migrate into dentinal tubules and if that process takes place in a time-dependent manner. DESIGN: Sixty bovine root canals were incubated with devitalized and vital streptomycin-resistant E. faecalis strains after root canal enlargement (size 80, taper .02) with 3% NaOCl solution. Incubation times 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, and 42 days. Samples were processed for analysis by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and DAPI (4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole) staining. The penetration depth was calculated with the measurement tool of the Axio Vision program (Zeiss, Jena, Germany). Statistical analysis was performed by Kruskal-Wallis (α = 0.05) and Mann-Whitney U test (p < 0.05). RESULTS: Devitalized E. faecalis strains were able to migrate into dentinal tubules. The total number and penetration depth of devitalized E. faecalis cells was lower compared to the vital suspension of E. faecalis. It was noted, that bacterial penetration was not common to all of the dentinal tubules in the vital E. faecalis control and especially in the devitalized control. The migration took place in a time-dependent migration characteristic. CONCLUSIONS: Devitalized E. faecalis cells are still able to migrate into the dentinal tubules due to possible electrokinetic and osmotic processes. Thereby, increased exposure times lead to a time-dependent penetration characteristic. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Since devitalized bacteria can migrate as well into dentinal tubules, the presence of bacteria within dentinal tubules cannot be interpreted as a failure of tested preparation regimens.

The effect of different irrigation protocols on smear layer removal in root canals of primary teeth: a SEM study.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to compare the efficacy of different irrigation protocols on smear layer removal in root canals of primary teeth by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study was conducted with 40 extracted maxillary primary incisor teeth divided into four groups (n = 10) as 1% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), 10% ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)+1% NaOCl, 6% citric acid (CA)+1% NaOCl, and 0.9% physiological saline (PS). After the irrigation procedures, root canal walls were examined by SEM and the efficacies of irrigation solutions in smear layer removal were scored and compared. Data were analyzed using Kruskal-Wallis, Friedman and Siegel Castellan tests. RESULTS: The smear layer removal was found to be statistically more effective in groups of 10% EDTA + 1% NaOCl and 6% CA + 1% NaOCl when compared with the other groups (p < .05). Smear removal efficacy was statistically significantly higher in coronal and medium thirds when compared with the apical regions in the experimental groups. CONCLUSIONS: It was concluded that 10% EDTA + 1% NaOCl and 6% CA + 1% NaOCl could be alternative irrigation protocols regarding smear layer removal. However, due to the absence of erosive dentinal changes, it might be suggested that using 6% CA + 1% NaOCl can be recommended compared to 10% EDTA + 1% NaOCl in primary root canals.

Sodium Hypochlorite/Salicylic Acid Shampoo for Treatment of Canine Staphylococcal Pyoderma.

The emergence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius has increased the interest in topical therapy for treating canine pyoderma. Shampooing with chlorhexidine followed by dilute bleach rinses are often recommended, but household bleach can dry the skin and is unpleasant to use. A shampoo formulated with sodium hypochlorite and salicylic acid was evaluated as sole therapy for dogs with superficial pyoderma associated with S. pseudintermedius, including methicillin-resistant strains. Client-owned dogs were recruited based on positive culture for methicillin-resistant staphylococci or prior failure of pyoderma to respond to antibiotics. This prospective, open-label pilot study assessed the efficacy of the shampoo when used three times weekly for 4 wk. Dogs were evaluated at baseline and at 2 and 4 wk by cytology, clinical examination, and owner assessment. Digital images were also obtained. Baseline bacterial counts, clinical assessments and owner scores were significantly improved at 2 and 4 wk. Clients completing the study reported excellent lathering and dispersion, reduction in odor, and brightening of white and light coats. No owners reported skin dryness or other adverse events during the study. We conclude that this shampoo containing sodium hypochlorite in a vehicle that avoids skin drying is an effective treatment for canine pyoderma.

Enhanced terminal room disinfection and acquisition and infection caused by multidrug-resistant organisms and Clostridium difficile (the Benefits of Enhanced Terminal Room Disinfection study): a cluster-randomised, multicentre, crossover study.

BACKGROUND: Patients admitted to hospital can acquire multidrug-resistant organisms and Clostridium difficile from inadequately disinfected environmental surfaces. We determined the effect of three enhanced strategies for terminal room disinfection (disinfection of a room between occupying patients) on acquisition and infection due to meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, vancomycin-resistant enterococci, C difficile, and multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter. METHODS: We did a pragmatic, cluster-randomised, crossover trial at nine hospitals in the southeastern USA. Rooms from which a patient with infection or colonisation with a target organism was discharged were terminally disinfected with one of four strategies: reference (quaternary ammonium disinfectant except for C difficile, for which bleach was used); UV (quaternary ammonium disinfectant and disinfecting ultraviolet [UV-C] light except for C difficile, for which bleach and UV-C were used); bleach; and bleach and UV-C. The next patient admitted to the targeted room was considered exposed. Every strategy was used at each hospital in four consecutive 7-month periods. We randomly assigned the sequence of strategies for each hospital (1:1:1:1). The primary outcomes were the incidence of infection or colonisation with all target organisms among exposed patients and the incidence of C difficile infection among exposed patients in the intention-to-treat population. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT01579370. FINDINGS: 31 226 patients were exposed; 21 395 (69%) met all inclusion criteria, including 4916 in the reference group, 5178 in the UV group, 5438 in the bleach group, and 5863 in the bleach and UV group. 115 patients had the primary outcome during 22 426 exposure days in the reference group (51·3 per 10 000 exposure days). The incidence of target organisms among exposed patients was significantly lower after adding UV to standard cleaning strategies (n=76; 33·9 cases per 10 000 exposure days; relative risk [RR] 0·70, 95% CI 0·50-0·98; p=0·036). The primary outcome was not statistically lower with bleach (n=101; 41·6 cases per 10 000 exposure days; RR 0·85, 95% CI 0·69-1·04; p=0·116), or bleach and UV (n=131; 45·6 cases per 10 000 exposure days; RR 0·91, 95% CI 0·76-1·09; p=0·303) among exposed patients. Similarly, the incidence of C difficile infection among exposed patients was not changed after adding UV to cleaning with bleach (n=38 vs 36; 30·4 cases vs 31·6 cases per 10 000 exposure days; RR 1·0, 95% CI 0·57-1·75; p=0·997). INTERPRETATION: A contaminated health-care environment is an important source for acquisition of pathogens; enhanced terminal room disinfection decreases this risk. FUNDING: US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Effect of two different concentrations of sodium hypochlorite on postoperative pain following single-visit root canal treatment: a triple-blind randomized clinical trial.

AIM: To compare the effects of two different concentrations of NaOCl solution on postoperative pain following single-visit root canal treatment in mandibular molars with irreversible pulpitis. METHODOLOGY: A total of 122 patients who had mandibular molars with irreversible pulpitis were treated. The patients were randomly divided into two groups according to the concentration of NaOCl used during root canal instrumentation - either 2.5% or 5.25%. RaCe rotary instruments were used for root canal preparation, and all root canals were filled in one visit. Postoperative pain was evaluated using the visual analogue scale. Data were analysed by independent t-test, chi-square and Mann-Whitney tests. RESULTS: Twelve patients were excluded for various reasons. Pain reported by 110 patients who were eligible to be included in the study was analysed. No significant differences were found in the age and gender of the patients between the two groups (P = 0.50, P = 0.51, respectively). The patients who had 5.25% NaOCl reported significantly lower postoperative pain compared to those who had 2.5% NaOCl during the first 72 h following treatment (P = 0.021); however, there was no significant difference in pain felt by the patients during the rest of the study period, that is 4-7 days following treatment (P = 0.185) when the four-level pain categorization method was used. When the two-level pain categorization method was used, the results revealed that patients who had 5.25% NaOCl reported significantly less pain for the first 3 days after treatment (P = 0.026). The number of analgesics taken by patients who had 2.5% NaOCl was significantly higher than that taken by patients who had 5.25% NaOCl (P = 0.001). CONCLUSION: 5.25% NaOCl was associated with significantly lower postoperative pain compared to 2.5% NaOCl during the first 72 h following one-visit root canal treatment of mandibular molars with irreversible pulpitis.

Comparison of sodium hypochlorite extrusion by five irrigation systems using an artificial root socket model and a quantitative chemical method.

OBJECTIVES: This is to compare the volumes of irrigant apically extruded by five irrigation systems in an artificial socket model simulating clinical conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty extracted human single-rooted teeth were enlarged to size 40/04 and then embedded in silicone impression material. The root canal space was irrigated with nominal 3% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) using standard needle irrigation (SNI) with a 30-gauge notched needle, EndoActivator (EA), XP Endo Finisher (XP Endo), EndoVac (EV), and photon-induced photoacoustic streaming (PIPS). Extruded NaOCl was collected, reacted with taurine to form taurine-monochloramine, and absorbance of taurine-monochloramine was measured at 252 nm using a spectrophotometer. The five irrigation systems were compared with repeated measures ANOVA and pairwise comparisons. RESULTS: The EV group had very low extrusion (mean ± SD = 0.12 ± 0.2 µL) and differed significantly from the other four groups (P ≤ 0.001). Larger volumes of irrigant were extruded in the other irrigation groups. There were no significant differences in the extruded volumes among the SNI (7.4 ± 3.4 µL), EA (7.0 ± 6.1 µL), and XP Endo (7.8 ± 4.1 µL) groups (P = 1). The PIPS group had the highest mean extruded volume (12.9 ± 6.8 µL) and differed significantly from SNI (P = 0.030), EV (P < 0.0005), and EA (P = 0.02), but not XP Endo (P = 0.154). CONCLUSION: Under the in vitro conditions of this study, irrigant extrusion appears unavoidable unless negative pressure irrigation such as EV is used. PIPS extrudes more irrigant than other systems, while SNI, EA, and XP Endo extrude similar volumes of irrigant. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The findings help clinicians select the optimal irrigation system to avoid irrigant extrusion.

Diluted sodium hypochlorite (bleach) in dogs: antiseptic efficacy, local tolerability and in vitro effect on skin barrier function and inflammation.

BACKGROUND: Diluted sodium hypochlorite represents an inexpensive and widely available topical antiseptic, but there are no tolerability and efficacy data in veterinary dermatology. OBJECTIVES: To determine the in vivo antibacterial effect and tolerability of topical diluted bleach application and to assess its in vitro effect on skin barrier lipids and anti-inflammatory properties on keratinocytes. METHODS: Topical hypochlorite at 0.05% and tap water were applied to both sides of the thorax of four healthy dogs. The anti-inflammatory effect on canine keratinocytes was determined by real-time polymerase chain reaction; skin barrier integrity was assessed by evaluating stratum corneum lipid changes in canine stratified epidermal constructs. RESULTS: The cell viability of primary keratinocytes treated with water and diluted hypochlorite at 0.005 and 0.01%, reduced the percentage of viable cells by 10%. The exposure of primary keratinocytes to 0.005% diluted hypochlorite significantly reduced the induction of inflammatory genes chemokine ligand-2 (CCL2; P = 0.015) and thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC/CCL17, P = 0.032). There were no changes in skin lipid ceramide and nonceramide fractions in stratified epidermal constructs cultured for 17 days with 0.05% hypochlorite. Topical hypochlorite at 0.05% and tap water were well-tolerated without signs of skin irritation. Although a marked reduction in bacterial counts was seen within 20 min of diluted bleach application compared to the tap water control, this was only marginally significant (P = 0.06). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: The results indicate that a topical diluted bleach solution, at either 0.05 or 0.005% hypochlorite concentrations, is a well-tolerated antiseptic that also exhibits anti-inflammatory properties.

Comparison of frequency of pain in root canal treatment using sodium hypochlorite and chlorhexidine as root canal irrigants.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the frequency of pain in root canal treatment using sodium hypochlorite and chlorhexidine as root canal irrigants. METHODS: The cross-sectional study was carried out from January to June 2016 at the Pakistan Institute of Medical Sciences (PIMS), Islamabad, Pakistan, and comprised patients aged 18-40 years with irreversible pulpitis involving a posterior tooth. The patients were divided into two equal groups, with Group-I receiving 2% chlorhexidine, and Group-II receiving 5.25% sodium hypochlorite. Following the use of the irrigants, the selected teeth were evaluated for pain at 72 hours using Visual Analogue Scale. RESULTS: There were 60 patients divided into groups of 30(50%) each. The overall mean age was 27.97±5.9 years. There were 32 (53.3%) females and 28 (46.6%) males. The mean post-operative pain score was 1.70±1.9 in Group-I and 1.90 ± 2.3 in Group-II (p=0.5). In Group-I, 25(83.3%) patients had no pain while in Group-II, 20(66.7%) had no pain (p=0.1). CONCLUSIONS: There was no difference in post-operative pain at 72 hours between 2% chlorhexidine and 5.25% sodium hypochlorite when used as irrigants.

Antibacterial and antibiofilm effects of sodium hypochlorite against Staphylococcus aureus isolates derived from patients with atopic dermatitis.

BACKGROUND: Atopic dermatitis (AD) is characterized by an increased susceptibility to skin infections. Staphylococcus aureus is reported to dominate in AD lesions and reports have revealed the presence of staphylococcal biofilms. These infections contribute to aggravation of the eczema. Sodium hypochlorite is known to reduce bacterial load of skin lesions, as well as disease severity, in patients with AD, but the effect on biofilms is unknown. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the antimicrobial and antibiofilm effects of sodium hypochlorite against S. aureus isolates derived from patients with AD. METHODS: Skin biopsies derived from patients with infected AD were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Using radial diffusion assays, biofilm assays and confocal laser scanning microscopy, we assessed the effect of sodium hypochlorite on S. aureus isolates derived from lesional skin of patients with AD. RESULTS: SEM revealed clusters of coccoid bacteria embedded in fibrin and extracellular substances at the skin of a patient with infected AD. At concentrations of 0·01-0·08%, sodium hypochlorite showed antibacterial effects against planktonic cells. Eradication of S. aureus biofilms in vitro was observed in concentrations ranging from 0·01% to 0·16%. Confocal laser scanning microscopy confirmed these results. Finally, when human AD skin was subjected to sodium hypochlorite in an ex vivo model, a dose of 0·04% reduced the bacteria derived from AD skin. CONCLUSIONS: Sodium hypochlorite has antimicrobial and antibiofilm effects against clinical S. aureus isolates. Our findings suggest usage of a higher concentration than currently used in bleach baths of patients with skin-infected AD.

Intracavity lavage and wound irrigation for prevention of surgical site infection.

BACKGROUND: Surgical site infections (SSIs) are wound infections that occur after an operative procedure. A preventable complication, they are costly and associated with poorer patient outcomes, increased mortality, morbidity and reoperation rates. Surgical wound irrigation is an intraoperative technique, which may reduce the rate of SSIs through removal of dead or damaged tissue, metabolic waste, and wound exudate. Irrigation can be undertaken prior to wound closure or postoperatively. Intracavity lavage is a similar technique used in operations that expose a bodily cavity; such as procedures on the abdominal cavity and during joint replacement surgery. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of wound irrigation and intracavity lavage on the prevention of surgical site infection (SSI). SEARCH METHODS: In February 2017 we searched the Cochrane Wounds Specialised Register; the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL); Ovid MEDLINE; Ovid Embase and EBSCO CINAHL Plus. We also searched three clinical trials registries and references of included studies and relevant systematic reviews. There were no restrictions on language, date of publication or study setting. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included all randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of participants undergoing surgical procedures in which the use of a particular type of intraoperative washout (irrigation or lavage) was the only systematic difference between groups, and in which wounds underwent primary closure. The primary outcomes were SSI and wound dehiscence. Secondary outcomes were mortality, use of systemic antibiotics, antibiotic resistance, adverse events, re-intervention, length of hospital stay, and readmissions. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently assessed studies for inclusion at each stage. Two review authors also undertook data extraction, assessment of risk of bias and GRADE assessment. We calculated risk ratios or differences in means with 95% confidence intervals where possible. MAIN RESULTS: We included 59 RCTs with 14,738 participants. Studies assessed comparisons between irrigation and no irrigation, between antibacterial and non-antibacterial irrigation, between different antibiotics, different antiseptics or different non-antibacterial agents, or between different methods of irrigation delivery. No studies compared antiseptic with antibiotic irrigation. Surgical site infectionIrrigation compared with no irrigation (20 studies; 7192 participants): there is no clear difference in risk of SSI between irrigation and no irrigation (RR 0.87, 95% CI 0.68 to 1.11; I2 = 28%; 14 studies, 6106 participants). This would represent an absolute difference of 13 fewer SSIs per 1000 people treated with irrigation compared with no irrigation; the 95% CI spanned from 31 fewer to 10 more SSIs. This was low-certainty evidence downgraded for risk of bias and imprecision.Antibacterial irrigation compared with non-antibacterial irrigation (36 studies, 6163 participants): there may be a lower incidence of SSI in participants treated with antibacterial irrigation compared with non-antibacterial irrigation (RR 0.57, 95% CI 0.44 to 0.75; I2 = 53%; 30 studies, 5141 participants). This would represent an absolute difference of 60 fewer SSIs per 1000 people treated with antibacterial irrigation than with non-antibacterial (95% CI 35 fewer to 78 fewer). This was low-certainty evidence downgraded for risk of bias and suspected publication bias.Comparison of irrigation of two agents of the same class (10 studies; 2118 participants): there may be a higher incidence of SSI in participants treated with povidone iodine compared with superoxidised water (Dermacyn) (RR 2.80, 95% CI 1.05 to 7.47; low-certainty evidence from one study, 190 participants). This would represent an absolute difference of 95 more SSIs per 1000 people treated with povidone iodine than with superoxidised water (95% CI 3 more to 341 more). All other comparisons found low- or very low-certainty evidence of no clear difference between groups.Comparison of two irrigation techniques: two studies compared standard (non-pulsed) methods with pulsatile methods. There may, on average, be fewer SSIs in participants treated with pulsatile methods compared with standard methods (RR 0.34, 95% CI 0.19 to 0.62; I2 = 0%; two studies, 484 participants). This would represent an absolute difference of 109 fewer SSIs occurring per 1000 with pulsatile irrigation compared with standard (95% CI 62 fewer to 134 fewer). This was low-certainty evidence downgraded twice for risks of bias across multiple domains. Wound dehiscenceFew studies reported wound dehiscence. No comparison had evidence for a difference between intervention groups. This included comparisons between irrigation and no irrigation (one study, low-certainty evidence); antibacterial and non-antibacterial irrigation (three studies, very low-certainty evidence) and pulsatile and standard irrigation (one study, low-certainty evidence). Secondary outcomesFew studies reported outcomes such as use of systemic antibiotics and antibiotic resistance and they were poorly and incompletely reported. There was limited reporting of mortality; this may have been partially due to failure to specify zero events in participants at low risk of death. Adverse event reporting was variable and often limited to individual event types. The evidence for the impact of interventions on length of hospital stay was low or moderate certainty; where differences were seen they were too small to be clinically important. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: The evidence base for intracavity lavage and wound irrigation is generally of low certainty. Therefore where we identified a possible difference in the incidence of SSI (in comparisons of antibacterial and non-antibacterial interventions, and pulsatile versus standard methods) these should be considered in the context of uncertainty, particularly given the possibility of publication bias for the comparison of antibacterial and non-antibacterial interventions. Clinicians should also consider whether the evidence is relevant to the surgical populations under consideration, the varying reporting of other prophylactic antibiotics, and concerns about antibiotic resistance.We did not identify any trials that compared an antibiotic with an antiseptic. This gap in the direct evidence base may merit further investigation, potentially using network meta-analysis; to inform the direction of new primary research. Any new trial should be adequately powered to detect a difference in SSIs in eligible participants, should use robust research methodology to reduce the risks of bias and internationally recognised criteria for diagnosis of SSI, and should have adequate duration and follow-up.

Mixture of alkaline tetrasodium EDTA with sodium hypochlorite promotes in vitro smear layer removal and organic matter dissolution during biomechanical preparation.

AIM: The aim of this study was to determine the following: (i) the quantity of free chlorine in mixtures of equal proportions of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) with trisodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTAHNa3 ) and alkaline tetrasodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTANa4 ); (ii) organic matter dissolution; and (iii) the time necessary to remove the smear layer by these irrigants alone and when mixed. METHODOLOGY: The solutions were mixed in a 1 : 1 ratio and then iodometrically titrated over time to determine the quantity of free available chlorine. The capability of organic matter dissolution by the solutions alone and the mixtures of irrigants was analysed by weighing bovine muscle tissue specimens before and after submission to the following groups (n = 10): G1 - 0.9% saline solution (control), G2 - 2.5% NaOCl, G3 - 17% EDTAHNa3 , G4 - 10% EDTANa4 , G5 - 20% EDTANa4 , G6 - 5% NaOCl + 17% EDTAHNa3 , G7 - 5% NaOCl + 10% EDTANa4 and G8 - 5% NaOCl + 20% EDTANa4 . The times necessary for smear layer removal were determinated on discs of bovine dentine with a standardized smear layer produced with SiC papers using a scanning electron microscope that did not require the samples to be sputter coated. The dentine discs were submitted to the same experimental groups previously described (n = 10) over several time periods, and the photomicrographs acquired were scored for the presence of smear layer. The parametric data of tissue dissolution were analysed using two-way anova and one-way anova with Tukey's post hoc tests (α < 0.05), whilst nonparametric data of smear layer removal were analysed by Friedman test (α < 0.05) and the Kruskal-Wallis test with Dunn's post hoc (α < 0.05). RESULTS: EDTAHNa3 caused an almost complete and immediate loss of free available chlorine from NaOCl, whilst EDTANa4 promoted a slow and concentrat-ion-dependent decline. The organic matter was not dissolved in the control group, EDTA groups or the mixture of NaOCl + 17% EDTAHNa3 group (P > 0.05). NaOCl alone and the associations of NaOCl + EDTANa4 dissolved tissue at all periods analysed (P < 0.05). The smear layer was not removed in the control and NaOCl groups (P > 0.05). The smear layer was removed at 1 min in the NaOCl + 17% EDTAHNa3 group (P < 0.05); 2 min in 17% EDTAHNa3 group (P < 0.05); and 5 min in 10% EDTANa4 , 20% EDTANa4 , 5% NaOCl + 10% EDTANa4 and 5% NaOCl + 20% EDTANa4 groups (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Alkaline EDTANa4 was slower in removing the smear layer than EDTAHNa3 , but when mixed with NaOCl during biomechanical canal preparation promoted organic matter dissolution and smear layer removal simultaneously. However, the mixing of NaOCl and EDTANa4 should be performed immediately before use to prevent the reduction of free available chlorine.

Antibacterial Effect of Azadirachta indica (Neem) or Curcuma longa (Turmeric) against Enterococcus faecalis Compared with That of 5% Sodium Hypochlorite or 2% Chlorhexidine in vitro.

The purpose of this study was to compare the antibacterial properties of Azadirachta indica (neem) or Curcuma longa (turmeric) against Enterococcus faecalis with those of 5% sodium hypochlorite or 2% chlorhexidine as root canal irrigants in vitro. The activity of neem, chlorhexidine, sodium hypochlorite, or turmeric against E. faecalis was measured on agar plates using the agar diffusion method. The tube dilution method was used to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of the irrigants used. Chlorhexidine or neem exhibited the greatest antibacterial activity when used as endodontic irrigants against E. faecalis, followed by sodium hypochlorite. No statistically significant difference was observed between neem, sodium hypochlorite, or chlorhexidine. The MIC of neem was 1: 128, which was similar to that of chlorhexidine. The MBC for each of these irrigants was 1: 16. Neem yielded antibacterial activity equivalent to 2% chlorhexidine or sodium hypochlorite against E. faecalis, suggesting that it offers a promising alternative to the other root canal irrigants tested.