Inhibition of apical domain formation does not block blastocyst development in bovine embryos.

The first event of cellular differentiation consists of the segregation of the trophectoderm and the inner cell mass. Studies in mice suggest that cell contractility and the formation of an apical domain play important roles in this event; however, this remains unknown in the bovine. We tested the hypothesis that blocking apical domain formation would halt subsequent trophectoderm differentiation in bovine embryos. We first assessed the formation of an apical domain by the presence of Par-6 Family Cell Polarity Regulator Beta (PARD6B) and Ezrin (EZR), which appeared after the 8-cell stage. We inhibited apical domain formation by blocking cell contractility with 25µM (-)-blebbistatin. Treatment from 90 to 186h after insemination did not reduce blastocyst development compared with the untreated control group or the group treated with inactive (+)-blebbistatin. Immunofluorescence staining after blebbistatin treatment revealed the absence of EZR and the trophectoderm marker Caudal Type Homeobox 2 (CDX2). Following blebbistatin treatment, Yes1 Associated Transcriptional Regulator (YAP), which is involved in the Hippo signalling pathway, exhibited cytoplasmic staining instead of nuclear localisation. Despite changes in protein expression and localisation, no difference in trophectoderm or total cell numbers was observed. In conclusion, inhibition of cell contractility inhibited apical domain formation without impairing blastocyst formation, suggesting that a different biological mechanism is involved in trophectoderm and inner cell mass differentiation in bovine embryos.

Gene expression profile in heat-shocked Holstein and Nelore oocytes and cumulus cells.

The present study determined the transcriptome profile in Nelore and Holstein oocytes subjected to heat shock during IVM and the mRNA abundance of selected candidate genes in Nelore and Holstein heat-shocked oocytes and cumulus cells (CC). Holstein and Nelore cows were subjected to in vivo follicle aspiration. Cumulus-oocyte complexes were assigned to control (38.5°C, 22h) or heat shock (41°C for 12h, followed by 38.5°C for 10h) treatment during IVM. Denuded oocytes were subjected to bovine microarray analysis. Transcriptome analysis demonstrated 127, nine and six genes were differentially expressed between breed, temperature and the breed×temperature interaction respectively. Selected differentially expressed genes were evaluated by real-time polymerase chain reaction in oocytes and respective CC. The molecular motor kinesin family member 3A (KIF3A) was upregulated in Holstein oocytes, whereas the pro-apoptotic gene death-associated protein (DAP) and the membrane trafficking gene DENN/MADD domain containing 3 (DENND3) were downregulated in Holstein oocytes. Nelore CC showed increased transcript abundance for tight junction claudin 11 (CLDN11), whereas Holstein CC showed increased transcript abundance for antioxidant metallothionein 1E (MT1E) . Moreover, heat shock downregulated antioxidant MT1E mRNA expression in CC. In conclusion, oocyte transcriptome analysis indicated a strong difference between breeds involving organisation and cell death. In CC, both breed and temperature affected mRNA abundance, involving cellular organisation and oxidative stress.

Utilisation of sperm-binding assay combined with computer-assisted sperm analysis to evaluate frozen-thawed bull semen.

Due to homologies between the chicken egg perivitelline membrane with mammalian zona pellucida proteins, spermatozoa of several species are able to bind to this membrane. However, adequate standardisation is required to attest possible applications of this technique for semen evaluation of a given species. Therefore, we thawed and divided cryopreserved semen samples into two aliquotes, one kept in water bath at 37 °C (thawed) and the other submitted to snap-freezing to damage sperm cells (dead spermatozoa). Aliquotes were mixed into different ratios of thawed:dead cells and analysed for motility, membrane and acrosomal integrity, and mitochondrial activity. In parallel, chicken egg perivitelline membranes were inseminated with these ratios, and the number of spermatozoa bound per mm(2) of membrane was assessed by conventional microscopy (CM) and computer-assisted sperm analysis (CASA). Linear regression showed high correlation between thawed:dead sperm ratio and number of spermatozoa bound to the membrane (CM: r(2) = 0.91 and CASA: r(2) = 0.92 respectively). Additionally, positive correlations were found between the number of spermatozoa bound to the membrane and acrosomal integrity, membrane integrity, mitochondrial activity and motility. These findings indicate that sperm-egg-binding assay associated with CASA is a reliable, practical and inexpensive method for examining the fertilising capacity of cryopreserved bull semen.

Anti-Mullerian hormone concentration and antral ovarian follicle population in Murrah heifers compared to Holstein and Gyr kept under the same management.

This study was performed to evaluate plasma concentrations of anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH) and the ovarian antral follicle population (AFP) in different genetic groups. Cyclic heifers (13 Bubalus bubalis [Murrah]; 15 Bos taurus [Holstein] and 10 Bos indicus [Gyr]) were maintained under the same management and were synchronized with two doses of 150 µg IM d-cloprostenol administered 14 days apart. After the second d-cloprostenol treatment, heifers had their ovaries scanned daily by ultrasound to define the day of ovulation. On the same day, the AFP was determined and a plasma sample was collected to measure AMH. Murrah heifers had less AFP (25.6 ± 2.1 follicles; p = 0.01) and plasma AMH concentration (0.18 ± 0.03 ng/ml; p < 0.001) than Gyr (60.0 ± 12.2 follicles and 0.60 ± 0.12 ng/ml of AMH); however, data were similar when compared to Holstein (35.9 ± 6.8 follicles and 0.24 ± 0.06 ng/ml of AMH) heifers. Regardless of genetic background, there was a positive relationship between the AFP and plasmatic AMH concentration (Murrah [r = 0.62; p < 0.01], Holstein [r = 0.66; p < 0.001] and Gyr [r = 0.88; p < 0.001]). Also, when heifers were classified according to high- or low-AMH concentration based on the average within each genetic group, high-AMH heifers had greater (p < 0.0001) AFP than low-AMH heifers. In conclusion, both Murrah and Holstein heifers presented lower plasma AMH concentration and AFP when compared to Gyr.

α-6 integrin expression in bovine spermatogonial cells purified by discontinuous Percoll density gradient.

The study of spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) provides a model to better understand adult stem cell biology. Besides the biomedical potential to perform studies of infertility in many species, SSCs hold a promising application at animal transgenesis. Because stem cells are thought to be associated with basement membranes, expression of α-6 integrin has been investigated as a marker of type A spermatogonial cells, which are considered SSCs because of their undifferentiated status and self-renewal ability. In this manner, the aim of this study was to isolate type A SSCs from adult bulls by a two-step enzymatic procedure followed by a discontinuous Percoll density gradient purification and verify the expression of α-6 integrin by flow cytometry and real-time RT-PCR before and after Percoll purification. Spermatogonial cells were successfully obtained using the two-step enzymatic digestion. An average of 1 × 10(5) viable cells per gram of testis was isolated. However, the discontinuous Percoll did not purify isolated cells regarding α-6 integrin expression. Flow cytometry analysis demonstrated no differences in the α-6 integrin expression between cell samples before and after Percoll purification (p = 0.5636). The same was observed in the real-time PCR analysis (p > 0.05). In addition to α-6 integrin, the expression of GFRa-1 and PGP9.5, known bovine SSCs markers, was detected in all samples studied. Considering that Percoll can reduce cell viability, it is possible to conclude that Percoll density gradient is not suitable to purify bovine SSC, according to α-6 integrin expression.

Temporal evaluation of follicular dynamics and endocrine patterns of Holstein (Bos taurus), Gir (Bos indicus), and Murrah (Bubalus bubalis) heifers kept under the same nutritional, management and environmental conditions.

The objective of the study was to simultaneously compare ovarian follicular dynamics and endocrine parameters of taurine (Holstein; n = 14), zebuine (Gir; n = 5), and bubaline (Murrah; n = 15) heifers kept under the same environmental, nutritional and management conditions. Heifers were synchronized with two PGF treatments 14 days apart. Ovaries of cyclic heifers were scanned daily during two consecutive ovulations and blood samples were collected every 24 h from each animal. No significant difference was found for length of interovulatory interval, however, zebuine heifers presented a greater number of follicular waves, number of antral follicles on day of ovulation, and higher insulin concentration than the other two breeds. Taurine heifers had highest maximal diameter of first wave dominant and ovulatory follicles and CL volume. Taurine and bubaline heifer's dominant follicle of first wave had longer static and regression phases than zebuine heifers. Bubaline heifers presented overall lowest progesterone concentrations and CL volume, but higher IGF1 levels. No difference was observed between taurine and zebuine heifers regarding IGF1 concentration. Despite higher CL volume found in taurine heifers, no difference in mean progesterone concentration was observed between them and zebuine heifers. Insulin and IGF1 concentrations were greater in follicular phase than in luteal phase when breed was not evaluated. After evaluating the three breeds simultaneously, at the same nutritional and management status it is possible to conclude that each genetic group has a specific follicular development and endocrinology of the estrous cycle.

Vitrification with glutamine improves maturation rate of vitrified / warmed immature bovine oocytes.

The current study examined the protective effects of l-glutamine and cytochalasin B during vitrification of immature bovine oocytes. Oocyte vitrification solution (PBS supplemented with 10% FCS, 25% EG, 25% DMSO and 0.5 m trehalose) was the vitrification control. Treatments were the addition of 7 µg/ml cytochalasin B, 80 mm glutamine or both cytochalasin and glutaminine for 30 s. After warming, oocytes were matured in vitro for 24 h, fixed and stained with Hoechst (33342) for nuclear maturation evaluation. L-glutamine improved the vitrified/warmed immature bovine oocytes viability (32.8%), increasing the nuclear maturation rates compared to other treatments and the no treatment vitrified control (17.4%). There was, however, no effect of cytochalasin B on in vitro maturation (14.4%).

Serum starvation and full confluency for cell cycle synchronization of domestic cat (felis catus) foetal fibroblasts.

Nuclear transfer of domestic cat can be used as a tool to develop reproductive biotechnologies in wild felids. The importance of cell cycle phase during the nuclear transfer has been a matter of debate since the first mammalian clone was produced. The cell cycle phase of donor cells interferes on maintenance of correct ploidy and genetic reprogramming of the reconstructed embryo. The use of G0/G1 arrested donor cells has been shown to improve nuclear transfer efficiency. The present study was conducted to test the hypothesis that domestic cat foetal fibroblasts cultured up to the fifth passage and submitted to full confluency provide a higher percentage of cells at G0/G1 stage than fibroblasts cultured in serum starved media. Results demonstrated that serum starvation increased (p < or = 0.05) the percentage of G0/G1 fibroblasts when compared with control. Moreover, the combined protocol using confluency and serum starvation was more efficient (p < or = 0.05) synchronizing cells at G0/G1 stage than serum starvation or confluency alone for the first 3 days of treatment. In conclusion, serum starvation and full confluency act in a synergistic manner to improve domestic cat foetal fibroblast cell cycle synchronization at the G0/G1 stage.

Oestrogen and progesterone receptor gene expression in canine oocytes and cumulus cells throughout the oestrous cycle.

The aim of this research was to analyze oestrogen receptor-alpha (ERalpha), ERbeta and progesterone receptor (PR) gene expression in the canine oocyte and cumulus cells throughout the oestrous cycle. Ovaries from 38 bitches were recovered after ovariohysterectomy and sliced. The phase of the oestrous cycle was determined by vaginal cytology, vaginoscopy and serum hormonal measurements. Oocytes were mechanically denuded by repeated pipetting. For each phase of the cycle, a sample was composed by a pool of 50 oocytes (sample number: prooestrus = 3, oestrus = 8, dioestrus = 5 and anoestrus = 5) or a pool of cumulus cells (prooestrus = 4, oestrus = 7, dioestrus = 4 and anoestrus = 6). Oocyte and cumulus cells' total RNA was isolated and reverse transcription was conducted to perform real-time PCR. Oestrogen receptor-alpha was expressed throughout the cycle in the oocyte (33.33%, 25.0%, 20.0% and 60.0% for prooestrus, oestrus, dioestrus and anoestrus, respectively) and cumulus cells (50.0%, 47.14%, 25.0% and 66.67% for prooestrus, oestrus, dioestrus and anoestrus, respectively). In the oocyte, the ERbeta was also expressed in all phases of the cycle (33.33%, 50.0%, 20.0% and 60.0% for prooestrus, oestrus, dioestrus and anoestrus, respectively), whereas in cumulus cells, ERbeta was only expressed during prooestrus (50%) and oestrus (14.29%). Interestingly, while the oocyte PR was not detected in any phase of the cycle, this receptor was expressed during prooestrus (50%), oestrus (42.86%) and anoestrus (16.67%) in cumulus cells. In conclusion, canine oocytes express ERalpha and ERbeta throughout the oestrous cycle, however, there is a lack of PR expression in all these phases. Moreover, in cumulus cells, only ERalpha was expressed throughout the oestrous cycle.

Influence of ascorbic acid and glutathione antioxidants on frozen-thawed canine semen.

Poor sperm viability post-thaw has resulted in constant research into methods of cryopreservation of canine semen. One factor that may be involved in poor viability is sperm oxidative stress caused by excessive formation of reactive oxygen species. The present study was performed in order to evaluate the effect of different concentrations of ascorbic acid (AA) and glutathione (Glu) added to an extender for the freeze-thawing of dog sperm. Semen from five mature dogs was collected and frozen in two studies. Prior to and after freezing, sperm motility, morphology and membrane status were examined. In addition, sperm motility was examined up to 120 min after thawing to evaluate thermo-resistance. In study I, semen was collected twice from each dog. On both occasions, semen was divided into three aliquots: control, Glu 1 mM and Glu 5 mM. In study II, semen was collected twice and divided into three aliquots; control, AA 50 microM and AA 250 microM. Initial sperm motility was significantly higher in sperm diluted with AA 50 microM; sperm longevity, however, measured by a thermal-resistance test (TRT), was higher for Glu treatments. Higher concentration of Glu produced significant improvement in TRT and membrane status, whereas higher concentration of AA had a negative impact in sperm longevity. Antioxidant supplementation to semen freezing extenders improved semen quality post-thaw. Moreover, Glu had the most beneficial effect when supplemented at 5 mM.

Detection of protamine 2 in bovine spermatozoa and testicles.

BACKGROUND: Sperm DNA integrity is crucial for transmission of genetic information to future generations and DNA damage can occur during chromatin packaging. Chromatin packaging involves the replacement of somatic nucleosomal histones by nuclear proteins called protamines. Protamine 1 (PRM1) is transcribed and translated in spermatids of all mammals; however, protamine 2 (PRM2) is transcribed in low levels in spermatids and it is not yet described in bull mature spermatozoa. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to assess gene and protein expression of PRM2 and corroborate gene and protein expression of PRM1 in bull spermatozoa and testis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: For this purpose, absolute q-RT-PCR was performed to calculate the number of copies of PRM1 and PRM2 mRNAs in bovine epididymal spermatozoa and testicular tissue. Western blot and mass spectrometry were performed to identify PRM1 and PRM2 in samples of bovine epididymal spermatozoa. Samples of bovine testicular tissue were collected to identify PRM1 and PRM2 by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: We evaluated that the number of PRM1 mRNA copies was about hundred times higher than PRM2 mRNA copies in sperm and testicular samples (p < 0.0001). In addition, we estimated the PRM1: PRM2 ratio based on mRNA number of copies. In spermatozoa, the ratio was 1: 0.014, and in testicle, the ratio was 1: 0.009. We also evaluated the immunolocalization for PRM1 and PRM2 in bovine testis, and both proteins were detected in spermatids. Western blot and mass spectrometry in bovine epididymal spermatozoa confirmed these results. CONCLUSION: Our work identifies, for the first time, PRM2 in bovine epididymal spermatozoa and in testis. Further studies are still needed to understand the role of PRM2 on the chromatin of the spermatozoa and to verify how possible changes in PRM2 levels may influence the bull fertility.

Collection and evaluation of semen from the three-toed sloth (Bradypus tridactylus).

Sloths (Bradypus sp.) are extremely sensitive animals that suffer with the destruction and fragmentation of forests. They present a low population growth rate and need to be further studied for the preservation of the specie. Thus, the aim of this study was to establish an efficient semen collection protocol as well as characterize sperm concentration, motility and morphology in order to contribute with information about the reproductive traits of this specie, which has never been described in the literature before. For that, nine Bradypus tridactylus males were captured during the wet season and six during the dry season, in Manaus (AM), located in the north region of Brazil, semen was collected by electroejaculation with shocks given in sequences of progressive intensities (minimum 20mA and maximum 60mA). All animals ejaculated small volumes of semen and in some of them, the volume ejaculated was not enough for a complete spermiogram. Physical characteristics observed on the collections of the wet season were different from those seen in the specimen collected in the dry season. Motility an vigor was very low and did not show forward progression, only oscillatory movement. After Spermac stain, spermatozoa presented a wide variety of defects; however, the differences in morphology were not significant between seasons. The morphology assessed by scanning electron microscopy shows that the head in both groups could be elongated, short or could have a base narrower than the apex and the midpiece narrowed abruptly, forming a nip in its transition to the tail. Although further studies are necessary to verify our preliminary findings concerning seasonal variation in sperm quality, these results demonstrate that semen can be safely collected from sloths by electroejaculation and provide the first reports of semen characteristics in this species.

Sequence variation of the alpha-lactalbumin gene in Holstein and Nellore cows.

The alpha-lactalbumin is a subunit of lactose-synthase, an enzyme responsible for lactose production, a disaccharide that influences milk production. Sequence variations of bovine alpha -lactalbumin have been associated with differences in milk yield. This study aimed to analyze allelic frequency differences at position - 1689 (g. A > G) and + 15 (g. A > G) of the alpha-lactalbumin gene in Holstein (Bos taurus) and Nellore (Bos indicus) cows. Blood samples were analyzed from 34 Holstein, 104 Nellore, and 99 Dairy Nellore cows using PCR-RFLP. The different RFLP patterns were sequenced and a novel sequence variation on nucleotide - 46 was identified. An adenine at this position was designated as the A allele and a guanine was designated B allele. The frequencies of alleles A - 1689, A - 46, and A + 15 differed between Holstein and both Nellore breeds. The results show that differences in alpha-lactalbumin allelic variants in the 5'-flanking and the 5'-UTR region might be associated with differences in milk production between Holstein cows and cows from Nellore breeds. However, the lack of difference between Nellore and Dairy Nellore suggests that other sequence variantions that regulate milk production might be responsible for the selection of Dairy Nellore cows with superior milk production.

Effect of bovine sperm chromatin integrity evaluated using three different methods on in vitro fertility.

In vitro fertility potential of individual bulls is still relatively uncharacterized. Classical sperm analysis does not include the evaluation of all sperm characteristics and thus, some cell compartments could be neglected. In humans, sperm DNA integrity has already proven to have major influence in embryo development and assisted reproduction techniques successfully. In bovine, some studies already correlated chromatin integrity with field fertility. However, none of those have attempted to relate DNA assessment approaches such as chromatin deficiency (CMA3), chromatin stability (SCSA; AO+) and DNA fragmentation (COMET assay) to predict in vitro bull fertility. To this purpose, we selected bulls with high and low in vitro fertility (n = 6/group), based on embryo development rate (blastocyst/cleavage rate). We then performed CMA3, SCSA test and COMET assay to verify if the difference of in vitro fertility may be related to DNA alterations evaluated by these assays. For the three tests performed, our results showed only differences in the percentage of cells with chromatin deficiency (CMA3+; high: 0.19 ± 0.03 vs low: 0.04 ± 0.04; p = 0.03). No difference for chromatin stability and any of COMET assay categories (grade I to grade IV) was observed between high and low in vitro fertility bulls. A positive correlation between AO + cells and grade IV cells was found. Despite the difference between groups in CMA3 analysis, our results suggest that protamine deficiency in bovine spermatozoa may not have a strong biological impact to explain the difference of in vitro fertility between the bulls used in this study.

Sperm cryodamage occurs after rapid freezing phase: flow cytometry approach and antioxidant enzymes activity at different stages of cryopreservation.

BACKGROUND: In order to improve the efficiency of bovine sperm cryopreservation process, it is important to understand how spermatozoa respond to differences in temperature as well as the ability to recover its own metabolism. The combination between flow cytometry approach and antioxidant enzymes activity allows a more sensible evaluation of sperm cell during cryopreservation. The aim of this study was to evaluate sperm attributes and antioxidant enzymes activity during different stages of cryopreservation process. Semen samples from Holstein bulls (n = 4) were separated in 3 treatments: fresh (37 °C); cooled (5 °C); and thawed. Evaluation occurred at 0 h and 2 h after incubation. Membrane integrity, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and DNA damages were evaluated by flow cytometry; activities of antioxidant enzymes such as catalase, superoxide dismutase and gluthatione peroxidase were measured by spectrofotometry. RESULTS: There was an increase in the percentage of sperm with DNA damage in the thawed group, compared to fresh and cooled, and for 2 hs of incubation when compared to 0 h. Considering MMP, there was an increase in the percentage of cells with medium potential in thawed group when compared to fresh and cooled groups. Opposingly, a decrease was observed in the thawed group considering high mitochondrial potential. Also in the thawed group, there was an increase on cells with damaged acrosome and membrane when compared to fresh and cooled groups. Significant correlations were found between antioxidant enzymes activity and membrane or mitochondrial parameters. CONCLUSION: Based on our results, we conclude that cryopreservation affects cellular and DNA integrity and that the critical moment is when sperm cells are exposed to freezing temperature. Also, our study indicates that intracellular antioxidant machinery (SOD and GPX enzymes) is not enough to control cryodamage.

Detection of protamine 2 in bovine spermatozoa and testicles

Abstract Background Sperm DNA integrity is crucial for transmission of genetic information to future generations and DNA damage can occur during chromatin packaging. Chromatin packaging involves the replacement of somatic nucleosomal histones by nuclear proteins called protamines. Protamine 1 (PRM1) is transcribed and translated in spermatids of all mammals; however, protamine 2 (PRM2) is transcribed in low levels in spermatids and it is not yet described in bull mature spermatozoa. Objectives The aim of this study was to assess gene and protein expression of PRM2 and corroborate gene and protein expression of PRM1 in bull spermatozoa and testis. Materials and methods For this purpose, absolute q-RT-PCR was performed to calculate the number of copies of PRM1 and PRM2 mRNAs in bovine epididymal spermatozoa and testicular tissue. Western blot and mass spectrometry were performed to identify PRM1 and PRM2 in samples of bovine epididymal spermatozoa. Samples of bovine testicular tissue were collected to identify PRM1 and PRM2 by immunohistochemistry. Results We evaluated that the number of PRM1 mRNA copies was about hundred times higher than PRM2 mRNA copies in sperm and testicular samples (p < 0.0001). In addition, we estimated the PRM1: PRM2 ratio based on mRNA number of copies. In spermatozoa, the ratio was 1: 0.014, and in testicle, the ratio was 1: 0.009. We also evaluated the immunolocalization for PRM1 and PRM2 in bovine testis, and both proteins were detected in spermatids. Western blot and mass spectrometry in bovine epididymal spermatozoa confirmed these results. Conclusion Our work identifies, for the first time, PRM2 in bovine epididymal spermatozoa and in testis. Further studies are still needed to understand the role of PRM2 on the chromatin of the spermatozoa and to verify how possible changes in PRM2 levels may influence the bull fertility.

Production of a cloned calf from a fetal fibroblast cell line.

The present study examined the in vitro and in vivo development of bovine nuclear-transferred embryos. A bovine fetal fibroblast culture was established and used as nucleus donor. Slaughterhouse oocytes were matured in vitro for 18 h before enucleation. Enucleated oocytes were fused with fetal fibroblasts with an electric stimulus and treated with cytochalasin D and cycloheximide for 1 h followed by cycloheximide alone for 4 h. Reconstructed embryos were cultured for 7-9 days and those which developed to blastocysts were transferred to recipient cows. Of 191 enucleated oocytes, 83 (43.5%) were successfully fused and 24 (28.9%) developed to blastocysts. Eighteen freshly cloned blastocysts were transferred to 14 recipients, 5 (27.8%) of which were pregnant on day 35 and 3 (16.7%) on day 90. Of the three cows that reached the third trimester, one recipient died of hydrallantois 2 months before term, one aborted fetus was recovered at 8 months of gestation, and one delivered by cesarian section a healthy cloned calf. Today, the cloned calf is 15 months old and presents normal body development (378 kg) and sexual behavior (libido and semen characteristics).

Cryopreservation of Bos taurus vs Bos indicus embryos: are they really different?

Cryopreservation with storage at very low temperatures is essential to make full use of this technology for both biological and commercial reasons. However, most mammalian cells will die if exposed to these temperatures unless they are exposed to cryoprotectant solutions and cooled and warmed at specific rates. Lowering temperature below 0 degree C introduces the risk of intracellular ice formation, which likely increases rapidly as the temperature falls. Evidence indicates that ice formation during cooling can cause significantly more damage than ice formation during warming. Comparisons of the toxicity of various cryoprotectants indicated that ethylene glycol (EG) is a nontoxic compound for murine and bovine embryos. The 3.6 M EG solution resulted in similar high survival rates when compared with nonfrozen embryos; deleterious effects of high concentrations of EG became apparent at 7.2 M. The use of EG provides a nontoxic method for the rapid and simplified controlled freezing of in vivo bovine compact morulae-early blastocyst, avoiding the risk of injury caused by high concentrations of cryoprotectants usually required for vitrification. However, in vivo embryos used for freezing and thawing require further studies to understand the ultrastructural changes during the freezing procedure with EG as the single cryoprotectant, especially between Holstein and Nelore cows. This paper describes the ultrastructure of bovine compact morulae-early blastocysts derived by in vivo methods from Holstein and Nelore cows to investigate the fresh morphology as well as that after exposure to cryoprotectant and cryopreservation by conventional slow freezing, quick freezing (nitrogen vapor), and vitrification.

Detection of protamine 2 in bovine spermatozoa and testicles

Background Sperm DNA integrity is crucial for transmission of genetic information to future generations and DNA damage can occur during chromatin packaging. Chromatin packaging involves the replacement of somatic nucleosomal histones by nuclear proteins called protamines. Protamine 1 (PRM1) is transcribed and translated in spermatids of all mammals; however, protamine 2 (PRM2) is transcribed in low levels in spermatids and it is not yet described in bull mature spermatozoa. Objectives The aim of this study was to assess gene and protein expression of PRM2 and corroborate gene and protein expression of PRM1 in bull spermatozoa and testis. Materials and methods For this purpose, absolute q-RT-PCR was performed to calculate the number of copies of PRM1 and PRM2 mRNAs in bovine epididymal spermatozoa and testicular tissue. Western blot and mass spectrometry were performed to identify PRM1 and PRM2 in samples of bovine epididymal spermatozoa. Samples of bovine testicular tissue were collected to identify PRM1 and PRM2 by immunohistochemistry. Results We evaluated that the number of PRM1 mRNA copies was about hundred times higher than PRM2 mRNA copies in sperm and testicular samples (p < 0.0001). In addition, we estimated the PRM1: PRM2 ratio based on mRNA number of copies. In spermatozoa, the ratio was 1: 0.014, and in testicle, the ratio was 1: 0.009. We also evaluated the immunolocalization for PRM1 and PRM2 in bovine testis, and both proteins were detected in spermatids. Western blot and mass spectrometry in bovine epididymal spermatozoa confirmed these results. Conclusion Our work identifies, for the first time, PRM2 in bovine epididymal spermatozoa and in testis. Further studies are still needed to understand the role of PRM2 on the chromatin of the spermatozoa and to verify how possible changes in PRM2 levels may influence the bull fertility.

Exogenous DNA uptake by bovine spermatozoa does not induce DNA fragmentation.

Sperm-mediated gene transfer (SMGT) is a fast and low-cost method used to produce transgenic animals. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of the concentration of exogenous DNA and the duration of incubation on DNA uptake by bovine spermatozoa and subsequently the integrity of sperm DNA and sperm apoptosis. Spermatozoa (5 x 10(6) cells/mL) were incubated with 100, 300, or 500 ng of exogenous DNA (pEYFP-Nuc plasmid) for 60 or 120 min at 39 degrees C. The amount of exogenous DNA associated with spermatozoa was quantified by real-time PCR, and the percentages of DNA fragmentation in spermatozoa were evaluated using SCSA and a TUNEL assay, coupled with flow cytometry. Uptake of exogenous DNA increased significantly as incubation increased from 60 to 120 min (0.0091 and 0.028 ng, respectively), but only when the highest exogenous DNA concentration (500 ng) was used (P < 0.05). Based on SCSA and TUNEL assays, there was no effect of exogenous DNA uptake or incubation period on sperm DNA integrity. In conclusion, exogenous DNA uptake by bovine spermatozoa was increased with the highest exogenous DNA concentration and longest incubation period, but fragmentation of endogenous DNA was apparently not induced.