Dosimetry formalism and calibration procedure for electronic brachytherapy sources in terms of absorbed dose to water.

The LNE-LNHB has developed a methodology to standardize electronic brachytherapy sources in terms of absorbed dose to water. It is based on the measurement of the air-kerma rate at a given distance from the source and the Monte Carlo calculation of a conversion factor. This factor converts the air-kerma in measurement conditions into absorbed dose to water at a 1 cm reference depth in a water phantom. As a first application, the method was used to calibrate a Zeiss INTRABEAM system equipped with its 4 cm diameter spherical applicator. The absorbed-dose rate value obtained in the current study was found significantly higher than that provided by the manufacturer in line with the observations already reported by a few other teams.

An intercomparison of Monte Carlo codes used in gamma-ray spectrometry.

In an intercomparison exercise, the Monte Carlo codes most commonly used in gamma-ray spectrometry today were compared with each other in order to gauge the differences between them in terms of typical applications. No reference was made to experimental data; instead, the aim was to confront the codes with each other, as they were applied to the calculation of full-energy-peak and total efficiencies. Surprising differences between the results of different codes were revealed.

Validation of a personalized dosimetric evaluation tool (Oedipe) for targeted radiotherapy based on the Monte Carlo MCNPX code.

Dosimetric studies are necessary for all patients treated with targeted radiotherapy. In order to attain the precision required, we have developed Oedipe, a dosimetric tool based on the MCNPX Monte Carlo code. The anatomy of each patient is considered in the form of a voxel-based geometry created using computed tomography (CT) images or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Oedipe enables dosimetry studies to be carried out at the voxel scale. Validation of the results obtained by comparison with existing methods is complex because there are multiple sources of variation: calculation methods (different Monte Carlo codes, point kernel), patient representations (model or specific) and geometry definitions (mathematical or voxel-based). In this paper, we validate Oedipe by taking each of these parameters into account independently. Monte Carlo methodology requires long calculation times, particularly in the case of voxel-based geometries, and this is one of the limits of personalized dosimetric methods. However, our results show that the use of voxel-based geometry as opposed to a mathematically defined geometry decreases the calculation time two-fold, due to an optimization of the MCNPX2.5e code. It is therefore possible to envisage the use of Oedipe for personalized dosimetry in the clinical context of targeted radiotherapy.

Comparison of calculated spectra for the interaction of photons in a liquid scintillator. Example of 54Mn 835 keV emission.

The CIEMAT/NIST and TDCR methods in liquid scintillation counting, initially developed for the activity standardization of pure-beta radionuclides, have been extended to the standardization of electron capture and beta-gamma radionuclides. Both methods require the calculation of the energy spectrum absorbed by the liquid scintillator. For radionuclides emitting X-rays or gamma-rays, when the energy is greater than a few tens of keV the Compton interaction is important and the absorption is not total. In this case, the spectrum absorbed by the scintillator must be calculated using analytical or stochastic models. An illustration of this problem is the standardization of 54Mn, which is a radionuclide decaying by electron capture. The gamma transition, very weakly converted, leads to the emission of an 835 keV photon. The calculation of the detection efficiency of this radionuclide requires the calculation of the energy spectrum transferred to the scintillator after the absorption of the gamma ray and the associated probability of absorption. The validity of the method is thus dependent on the correct calculation of the energy transferred to the scintillator. In order to compare the calculation results obtained using various calculation tools, and to provide the metrology community with some information on the choice of these tools, the LS working group of the ICRM organised a comparison of the calculated absorbed spectra for the 835 keV photon of 54Mn. The result is the spectrum of the energy absorbed by the scintillator per emission of an 835 keV gamma ray. This exercise was proposed for a standard 20 ml LS glass vial and for LS cocktail volumes of 10 and 15 ml. The calculation was done for two different cocktails: toluene and a widely used commercial cocktail, Ultima Gold. The paper describes the results obtained by nine participants using a total of 12 calculation codes.

Modelling the effect of non-uniform radon progeny activities on transformation frequencies in human bronchial airways.

The effects of radiological and morphological source heterogeneities in straight and Y-shaped bronchial airways on hit frequencies and microdosimetric quantities in epithelial cells have been investigated previously. The goal of the present study is to relate these physical quantities to transformation frequencies in sensitive target cells and to radon-induced lung cancer risk. Based on an effect-specific track length model, computed linear energy transfer (LET) spectra were converted to corresponding transformation frequencies for different activity distributions and source-target configurations. Average transformation probabilities were considerably enhanced for radon progeny accumulations and target cells at the carinal ridge, relative to uniform activity distributions and target cells located along the curved and straight airway portions at the same exposure level. Although uncorrelated transformation probabilities produce a linear dose-effect relationship, correlated transformations first increase depending on the LET, but then decrease significantly when exceeding a defined number of hits or cumulative exposure level.

Microdosimetry of radon progeny alpha particles in bronchial airway bifurcations.

A Monte Carlo code, initially developed for the calculation of microdosimetric spectra for alpha particles in cylindrical airways, has been extended to allow the computation of microdosimetric parameters for multiple source-target configurations in bronchial airway bifurcations. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of uniform and non-uniform radon progeny surface activity distributions in symmetric and asymmetric bronchial airway bifurcations on absorbed dose, hit frequency, lineal energy, single hit specific energy and LET spectra. In order to assess the effects of multiple hits, dose-dependent specific energy spectra were calculated by solving the compound Poisson process by iterative convolution. While the simulations showed significant differences of cellular dose quantities at different cell locations for uniformly distributed surface activities, even higher variations, as high as several orders of magnitude, were observed for non-uniform surface activity distributions, depending on the location of the cell and the local activity distribution.

Microdosimetry of inhomogeneous radon progeny distributions in bronchial airways.

A Monte Carlo code, initially developed for the calculation of microdosimetric spectra for alpha particles in cylindrical airways, has been extended to allow the computation (i) of additional microdosimetric parameters and (ii) for realistic exposure conditions in human bronchial airways with respect to surface activity distribution and airway geometry. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of non-uniform distributions of radon progeny activities in bronchial airways on cellular energy deposition parameters. Significant variations of hit frequencies, doses and microscopic energy deposition patterns were observed for epithelial cell nuclei, depending strongly on the assumed activity distributions. Thus, epithelial cells located at different positions in a given bronchial airway may experience a wide range of biological responses. The results obtained suggest that the hit frequency may be the primary physical parameter for alpha particles, supplemented by microdosimetric single event spectra, to be related to biological effects for chronic low level exposures.

Dosimetric comparison of Monte Carlo codes (EGS4, MCNP, MCNPX) considering external and internal exposures of the Zubal phantom to electron and photon sources.

This paper aims at comparing dosimetric assessments performed with three Monte Carlo codes: EGS4, MCNP4c2 and MCNPX2.5e, using a realistic voxel phantom, namely the Zubal phantom, in two configurations of exposure. The first one deals with an external irradiation corresponding to the example of a radiological accident. The results are obtained using the EGS4 and the MCNP4c2 codes and expressed in terms of the mean absorbed dose (in Gy per source particle) for brain, lungs, liver and spleen. The second one deals with an internal exposure corresponding to the treatment of a medullary thyroid cancer by 131I-labelled radiopharmaceutical. The results are obtained by EGS4 and MCNPX2.5e and compared in terms of S-values (expressed in mGy per kBq and per hour) for liver, kidney, whole body and thyroid. The results of these two studies are presented and differences between the codes are analysed and discussed.

Current developments at IRSN on computational tools dedicated to assessing doses for both internal and external exposure.

The paper presents the OEDIPE (French acronym that stands for tool for personalised internal dose assessment) and SESAME (for simulation of external source accident with medical images) computational tools, dedicated to internal and external dose assessment, respectively, and currently being developed at the Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety. The originality of OEDIPE and SESAME, by using voxel phantoms in association with Monte Carlo codes, lies in their ability to construct personalised voxel phantoms from medical images and automatically generate the Monte Carlo input file and visualise the expected results. OEDIPE simulates in vivo measurements to improve their calibration, and calculates the dose distribution taking both internal contamination and internal radiotherapy cases into account. SESAME enables radiological overexposure doses to be reconstructed, as also victim, source and accident environment modelling. The paper presents the principles on which these tools function and an overview of specificities and results linked to their fields of application.

Interaction of alpha particles at the cellular level--implications for the radiation weighting factor.

Since low dose effects of alpha particles are produced by cellular hits in a relatively small fraction of exposed cells, the present study focuses on alpha particle interactions in bronchial epithelial cells following exposure to inhaled radon progeny. A computer code was developed for the calculation of microdosimetric spectra, dose and hit probabilities for alpha particles emitted from uniform and non-uniform source distributions in cylindrical and Y-shaped bronchial airway geometries. Activity accumulations at the dividing spur of bronchial airway bifurcations produce hot spots of cellular hits, indicating that a small fraction of cells located at such sites may receive substantially higher doses. While presently available data on in vitro transformation frequencies suggest that the relative biological effectiveness for alpha particles ranges from about 3 to 10, the effect of inhomogeneous activity distributions of radon progeny may slightly increase the radiation weighting factor relative to a uniform distribution. Thus a radiation weighting factor of about 10 may be more realistic than the current value of 20, at least for lung cancer risk following inhalation of short-lived radon progeny.

A computational tool based on voxel geometry for dose reconstruction of a radiological accident due to external exposure.

In the case of overexposure to ionising radiation, estimation of the absorbed dose in the organism is an important indicator for evaluating the biological consequences of this exposure. The physical dosimetry approach is based either on real reconstruction of the accident, using physical phantoms, or on calculation techniques. Tools using Monte Carlo simulations associated with geometric models are very powerful since they offer the possibility to simulate faithfully the victim and the environment for dose calculations in various accidental situations. Their work presents a new computational tool, called SESAME, dedicated to dose reconstruction of radiological accidents based on anthropomorphic voxel phantoms built from real medical images of the victim in association with the MCNP Monte Carlo code. The utility was, as a first step, validated for neutrons by experimental means using a physical tissue-equivalent phantom.

Monte Carlo code for microdosimetry of inhaled alpha emitters.

A Monte Carlo code has been developed to calculate the local energy deposited by alpha emitters deposited on the inner surface in the lung airway. Developed to deal further with airway bifurcations, this code has been as a first step validated in a cylindrical airway configuration by comparison with well-established analytical codes in the case of contamination of bronchiolar airways with actinides. The code has then been applied to the study of uniform and non-uniform contamination of cylindrical bronchial airways by radon progeny in indoor and mine exposure conditions. In addition to the microdosimetric spectra, the average microdosimetric parameters (zp, n, z) have been evaluated. The work currently in progress consists in adapting this developed Monte Carlo code to the configuration of an airway bifurcation with realistic particles deposition.

Application of new imaging and calculation techniques to activity and dose assessment in the case of a 106Ru contaminated wound.

The aim of this paper is to describe the dosimetric evaluation of a point contamination that occurred in a laboratory during the examination of an irradiated sample. The incident led to point contamination of the operator's finger due to the presence of mainly 106Ru, with its progeny, 106Rh. The paper reports on the activity and dose assessment, performed using several methods. The measured activity was obtained using a conventional device based on a germanium detector and confirmed using software developed at IRSN, based on reconstruction of voxel phantom associated with the Monte Carlo N-Particle code (MCNP) for in vivo measurement. Two dose assessment calculations were performed using both analytical and Monte Carlo methods, applying the same approach as for activity assessment based on the personal computational phantom of the finger. The results are compared, followed by a discussion on the suitability of the tools described in this study.

Using LiF:Mg,Cu,P TLDs to estimate the absorbed dose to water in liquid water around an 192Ir brachytherapy source.

PURPOSE: The absorbed dose to water is the fundamental reference quantity for brachytherapy treatment planning systems and thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLDs) have been recognized as the most validated detectors for measurement of such a dosimetric descriptor. The detector response in a wide energy spectrum as that of an (192)Ir brachytherapy source as well as the specific measurement medium which surrounds the TLD need to be accounted for when estimating the absorbed dose. This paper develops a methodology based on highly sensitive LiF:Mg,Cu,P TLDs to directly estimate the absorbed dose to water in liquid water around a high dose rate (192)Ir brachytherapy source. METHODS: Different experimental designs in liquid water and air were constructed to study the response of LiF:Mg,Cu,P TLDs when irradiated in several standard photon beams of the LNE-LNHB (French national metrology laboratory for ionizing radiation). Measurement strategies and Monte Carlo techniques were developed to calibrate the LiF:Mg,Cu,P detectors in the energy interval characteristic of that found when TLDs are immersed in water around an (192)Ir source. Finally, an experimental system was designed to irradiate TLDs at different angles between 1 and 11 cm away from an (192)Ir source in liquid water. Monte Carlo simulations were performed to correct measured results to provide estimates of the absorbed dose to water in water around the (192)Ir source. RESULTS: The dose response dependence of LiF:Mg,Cu,P TLDs with the linear energy transfer of secondary electrons followed the same variations as those of published results. The calibration strategy which used TLDs in air exposed to a standard N-250 ISO x-ray beam and TLDs in water irradiated with a standard (137)Cs beam provided an estimated mean uncertainty of 2.8% (k = 1) in the TLD calibration coefficient for irradiations by the (192)Ir source in water. The 3D TLD measurements performed in liquid water were obtained with a maximum uncertainty of 11% (k = 1) found at 1 cm from the source. Radial dose values in water were compared against published results of the American Association of Physicists in Medicine and the European Society for Radiotherapy and Oncology and no significant differences (maximum value of 3.1%) were found within uncertainties except for one position at 9 cm (5.8%). At this location the background contribution relative to the TLD signal is relatively small and an unexpected experimental fluctuation in the background estimate may have caused such a large discrepancy. CONCLUSIONS: This paper shows that reliable measurements with TLDs in complex energy spectra require a study of the detector dose response with the radiation quality and specific calibration methodologies which model accurately the experimental conditions where the detectors will be used. The authors have developed and studied a method with highly sensitive TLDs and contributed to its validation by comparison with results from the literature. This methodology can be used to provide direct estimates of the absorbed dose rate in water for irradiations with HDR (192)Ir brachytherapy sources.

Digital instrumentation and management of dead time: first results on a NaI well-type detector setup.

The LNE-LNHB is engaged in a development program on digital instrumentation, the first step being the instrumentation of a NaI well-type detector set-up. The prototype acquisition card and its technical specifications are presented together with the first comparison with the classical NIM-based acquisition chain, for counting rates up to 100 kcps. The digital instrumentation is shown to be counting-loss free in this range. This validates the main option adopted in this project, namely the implementation of an extending dead time with live-time measurement already successfully used in the MTR2 NIM module developed at LNE-LNHB.

DUPLICATE: Digital instrumentation and management of dead time: First results on a NaI well-type detector setup.

The Publisher regrets that this article is an accidental duplication of an article that has already been published, doi:10.1016/j.apradiso.2010.01.040. The duplicate article has therefore been withdrawn.

SESAME: a software tool for the numerical dosimetric reconstruction of radiological accidents involving external sources and its application to the accident in Chile in December 2005.

Estimating the dose distribution in a victim's body is a relevant indicator in assessing biological damage from exposure in the event of a radiological accident caused by an external source. This dose distribution can be assessed by physical dosimetric reconstruction methods. Physical dosimetric reconstruction can be achieved using experimental or numerical techniques. This article presents the laboratory-developed SESAME--Simulation of External Source Accident with MEdical images--tool specific to dosimetric reconstruction of radiological accidents through numerical simulations which combine voxel geometry and the radiation-material interaction MCNP(X) Monte Carlo computer code. The experimental validation of the tool using a photon field and its application to a radiological accident in Chile in December 2005 are also described.

Advanced radionuclide detection techniques for in vitro and in vivo animal imaging.

This review of the different methodologies used for animal imaging with radioactive compounds presents the most recent approaches developed for both in vitro and in vivo studies. The choice of a detector for analysis of the spatial distribution of radionuclides deposited in biological tissues results in a trade-off between the size and nature of the region to study (in vitro or in vivo), the required spatial resolution and the penetrating characteristics of the ionizing radiation. Real time detectors are now available for quantitative imaging of 2D or 3D radioactive samples and offer either an increased dynamic range or a lowered sensitivity in comparison with film radioautography. For high resolution imaging, two specific techniques are proposed for applications to rodents. The usefulness of self-triggering intensified charge coupled device (STIC) is illustrated for in vitro localization in radiotoxicological studies of alpha-emitters. For in vivo techniques, the performance of positron emission tomography (PET) is discussed, as a promising method of molecular imaging of biological processes.