A phase I dose-ranging study of the pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, safety, and tolerability of AVN944, an IMPDH inhibitor, in healthy male volunteers.

A phase I study of AVN944, an inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) inhibitor, was carried out to assess its safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics. Healthy male volunteers (N = 25) participated in this double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Sixteen received oral doses ranging from 25 to 250 mg on 3 separate occasions at intervals of 3 or 6 days after overnight fasting. Six participants received two 100-mg doses, and 2 participants received 2 placebo doses, one with food and the other after fasting overnight. Clinical and laboratory parameters, including excretion of AVN944 and thiocyanate and IMPDH inhibition, were made at intervals for 48 hours postdosing. There were 13 mild and 2 moderate but no serious adverse events. One mild and 1 moderate event could be treatment related. AVN944 disappeared rapidly from plasma, but clearance decreased at doses > 50 mg. Food reduced absorption, with a geometric mean Cmax ratio of 33% and a geometric mean AUC0-infinity ratio of 44%. Urinary excretion was negligible. AVN944 doses > 100 mg showed definite IMPDH inhibition lasting at least 4 to 6 hours. AVN944, when administered orally to healthy volunteers, is well tolerated, absorbs better with fasting, and exhibits a pharmacodynamic profile that suggests potential for significant anticancer activity.

Induction of ornithine decarboxylase activity is a necessary step for mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase-induced skin tumorigenesis.

A transgenic mouse line overexpressing a constitutively active mutant of MEK1, a downstream effector of Ras, driven by the keratin 14 (K14) promoter, has been used to test the hypothesis that ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) induction during tumor promotion following a single initiating event [i.e., the activation of the Raf/mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Raf/MEK/ERK) pathway], is a necessary step in skin carcinogenesis. K14-MEK mice exhibit moderate hyperplasia, with spontaneous skin tumor development within 5 weeks of birth. Analysis of epidermis and dermis showed induction of MEK protein and ERK1/ERK2 phosphorylation, but no change in Akt-1, suggesting that the PI 3-kinase pathway, another pathway downstream of ras, is not activated. Examination of tumors revealed high levels of ODC protein and activity, indicating that activation of signaling cascades dependent on MEK activity is a sufficient stimulus for ODC induction. When K14-MEK mice were given alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), a suicide inactivator of ODC, in the drinking water from birth, there was a dramatic delay in the onset of tumor growth ( approximately 6 weeks), and only 25% of DFMO-treated mice developed tumors by 15 weeks of age. All untreated K14-MEK mice developed tumors by 6 weeks of age. Treatment of tumor-bearing mice with DFMO reduced both tumor size and tumor number within several weeks. Tumor regression was the result of both inhibition of proliferation and increased apoptosis in tumors. The results establish ODC activation as an important component of the Raf/MEK/ERK pathway, and identify K14-MEK mice as a valuable model with which to study the regulation of ODC in ras carcinogenesis.

Tumor development by transgenic expression of a constitutively active insulin-like growth factor I receptor.

The insulin-like growth factor I receptor (IGF-IR) is a transmembrane tyrosine kinase that is essential to growth and development and also thought to provide a survival signal for the maintenance of the transformed phenotype. There has been increasing interest in further understanding the role of IGF-I signaling in cancer and in developing receptor antagonists for therapeutic application. We describe herein a novel animal model that involves transgenic expression of a fusion receptor that is constitutively activated by homodimerization. Transgenic mice that expressed the activated receptor showed aberrant development of the mammary glands and developed salivary and mammary adenocarcinomas as early as 8 weeks of age. Xenograft tumors and a cell line were derived from the transgenic animals and are sensitive to inhibition by a novel small-molecule inhibitor of the IGF-IR kinase. This new model should provide new opportunities for further understanding how aberrant IGF-IR signaling leads to tumorigenesis and for optimizing novel antagonists of the receptor kinase.

Constitutively active receptor tyrosine kinases as oncogenes in preclinical models for cancer therapeutics.

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) remain an area of therapeutic interest because of their role in epithelial tumors, and experimental models specific to these targets are highly desirable. Chimeric receptors were prepared by in-frame fusion of the CD8 extracellular sequence with the cytoplasmic sequences of RTKs. A CD8HER2 fusion protein was shown to form disulfide-mediated homodimers and to transform fibroblasts and epithelial cells. CD8RTK fusion proteins transform rat kidney epithelial cells and impart phenotypes that may reflect signaling specificity inherent in the native receptors. Transgenic expression of CD8HER2 and CD8Met in mice resulted in the formation of salivary and mammary gland tumors. The transgenic tumors allow the derivation of allograft tumors and cell lines that are sensitive to inhibition by small molecule kinase inhibitors. This approach provides excellent cell and tumor models for the characterization of signaling properties of diverse RTKs and for the evaluation of rationally designed antagonists targeting these kinases.

Cyclooxygenase-2 overexpression in the skin of transgenic mice results in suppression of tumor development.

Significant evidence has accumulated suggesting that the inducible form of cyclooxygenase (COX-2), a central enzyme in the prostaglandin biosynthetic pathway, plays an important role in tumor development. To better understand the role of COX-2 in tumorigenesis, we generated transgenic mice that overexpress COX-2 under control of the human keratin 14 promoter, which allows for expression in the epidermis and some other epithelia. Transgenic mice, referred to as K14.COX2 mice, were readily distinguished from their nontransgenic littermates by the appearance of significant alopecia. Administration of a specific COX-2 inhibitor restored hair growth, indicating that the alopecia was attributable to elevated COX-2 enzymatic activity. Unexpectedly, COX-2 overexpression was found to protect, rather than sensitize, K14.COX2 mice to skin tumor development induced by an initiation/promotion protocol. K14.COX2 transgenics developed tumors at a much lower frequency than did their littermate controls (3.3% versus 93%, respectively, on a FVB background and approximately 25% versus 100%, respectively, on an ICR background) and presented with significantly reduced tumor burdens (average, 0.03 versus 12.7 tumors/mouse, respectively, on a FVB background and 0.5 versus 7.1 tumors/mouse, respectively, on an ICR background). Mice fed a COX-2 inhibitor in utero and as weanlings up to the time of promotion also showed a significant resistance to tumor development. These results clearly raise questions regarding the role of COX-2 and elevated prostaglandin levels in skin tumor development.

Targeted expression of c-Src in epidermal basal cells leads to enhanced skin tumor promotion, malignant progression, and metastasis.

In this study, we generated transgenic mice that overexpressed either a constitutively active human c-src mutant (src(530)) or a wild-type human c-src (src(wt)) in epidermal basal cells driven by human keratin 14 (HK14) or bovine keratin 5 (BK5) promoters, respectively. HK14.src(530) transgenic mice developed severe epidermal hyperplasia and hyperkeratosis, and did not survive beyond 3 weeks of age. Four transgenic founders were obtained after injection of a BK5.src(wt) construct with variable phenotypes, and three lines (lines A-C) were established. BK5.src(wt) founder D exhibited a severe skin phenotype similar to HK14.src(530) transgenic mice and died 5 days after birth. Line C transgenic mice also exhibited significant epidermal hyperplasia and hyperkeratosis, and developed spontaneous squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) of the skin beginning at approximately 3 months of age (70% incidence at 1 year). Mice from lines A and B did not show a marked phenotype; however, elevated human src(wt) protein in the epidermis of line B mice was clearly evident. Additional analyses of line B transgenic mice showed an enhanced responsiveness to 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced epidermal hyperplasia and cell proliferation. Analysis of the susceptibility of line B mice to two-stage skin carcinogenesis revealed that papillomas and SCCs arose earlier and in greater numbers compared with nontransgenic littermates. In addition, malignant conversion occurred more rapidly, and the SCCs that developed in line B transgenic mice had a greater propensity to metastasize to peripheral lymph nodes and other organs. These observations support the hypothesis that c-src plays an important role in skin tumor promotion. In addition, the data show that elevated c-src activity enhances malignant progression and metastasis in this model system.

Apoptotic and cytostatic farnesyltransferase inhibitors have distinct pharmacology and efficacy profiles in tumor models.

BMS-214662 and BMS-225975 are tetrahydrobenzodiazepine-based farnesyltransferase inhibitors (FTIs) that have nearly identical structures and very similar pharmacological profiles associated with farnesyltransferase (FT) inhibition. Despite their similar activity against FT in vitro and in cells, these compounds differ dramatically in their apoptotic potency and tumor-regressing activity in vivo. BMS-214662 is the most potent apoptotic FTI known and exhibits curative responses in mice bearing a variety of staged human tumor xenografts such as HCT-116 human colon tumor. By contrast, BMS-225975 does not cause tumor regression and at best causes partial tumor growth inhibition in staged HCT-116 human colon tumor xenografts. Lack of tumor regression activity in BMS-225975 was attributable to its relatively weak apoptotic potency, not to poor cell permeability or pharmacokinetics. Both compounds were equally effective in inhibiting Ras processing and causing accumulation of a variety of nonfarnesylated substrates of FT in HCT-116 cells. Because BMS-225975 has poor apoptotic activity compared with BMS-214662 but inhibits FT to the same extent as BMS-214662, it is very unlikely that FT inhibition alone can account for the apoptotic potency of BMS-214662. Clearly distinct patterns of sensitivities in a cell line panel were obtained for the apoptotic FTI BMS-214662 and the cytostatic FTI BMS-225975. Activation of the c-Jun-NH(2)-terminal kinase pathway was readily observed with BMS-214662 but not with BMS-225975. We developed a highly sensitive San-1 murine xenograft tumor model that is particularly useful for evaluating the in vivo activity of cytostatic FTIs such as BMS-225975.