Ellagic acid and its metabolites urolithins A/B ameliorate most common disease phenotypes in cellular and mouse models for lysosomal storage disorders by enhancing extracellular vesicle secretion.

Niemann Pick diseases types A (NPDA) and C (NPDC) are lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs) leading to cognitive impairment, neurodegeneration, and early death. NPDA and NPDC have different genetic origins, being caused by mutations in the acid sphingomyelinase (ASM) or the cholesterol transport protein NPC1, respectively. However, they share a common pathological hallmark in the accumulation of lipids in the endolysosomal compartment. Here, we tested the hypothesis that polyphenols reduce lipid overload in NPD cells by enhancing the secretion of extracellular vesicles (ECVs). We show that among the polyphenols tested, the ellagic acid metabolites, urolithin A and B, were the safest and most efficient in increasing ECV secretion. They reduced levels of accumulating lipids and lysosomal size and permeabilization in cultured bone marrow-derived macrophages and neurons from ASMko and NPC1 mutant mice, which mimic NPDA and NPDC, respectively. Moreover, oral treatment with ellagic acid reduced lipid levels, ameliorated lysosomal alterations, and diminished microglia activation in the brain of NPD mice. These results support the therapeutic value of ECV secretion and polyphenols for NPDs, which may also help treat other LSDs characterized by intracellular lipid overload.

Therapeutic potential of broccoli-derived extracellular vesicles as nanocarriers of exogenous miRNAs.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs that regulate gene expression. The wide-ranging biological activities of microRNAs stimulated research on disease mechanisms and is suggesting appealing therapeutic applications. When unprotected, miRNAs suffer from rapid degradation and appropriate strategies need to be developed to improve their therapeutic potential. Since the first observation of miRNAs being naturally transported by extracellular vesicles (EVs), the latter have been proposed as specific transport means for drug delivery, conferring stability and increasing resistance against RNase degradation. However, a standard, reproducible, and cost-effective protocol for EV isolation is lacking. Here, the use of broccoli-derived EVs as a therapeutic vehicle for extracellular RNA drug delivery was assessed. EVs were isolated from broccoli, combining ultracentrifugation and size exclusion chromatography methodology. Caco-2 cells were exposed to isolated EVs loaded with exogenous miRNAs and cellular viability was tested. The miRNAs were taken up by this intestinal cell line. Our results show that broccoli EVs can be efficiently isolated, characterized, and loaded with exogenous miRNAs, leading to toxicity in caco-2 cells. Because the pharmaceutical industry is searching for novel drug delivery nanovesicles with intrinsic properties such as low immunogenicity, stability to the gastrointestinal tract, ability to overcome biological barriers, large-scale production, cost-effectiveness, etc., broccoli-isolated nanovesicles might be suitable candidates for future pharmacological applications. We propose broccoli as a natural source of EVs, which are capable of transporting exogenous miRNAs with potential therapeutic effects and suggest that appropriate toxicological and randomized controlled trials as well as patent applications are warranted.

Squalene through Its Post-Squalene Metabolites Is a Modulator of Hepatic Transcriptome in Rabbits.

Squalene is a natural bioactive triterpene and an important intermediate in the biosynthesis of sterols. To assess the effect of this compound on the hepatic transcriptome, RNA-sequencing was carried out in two groups of male New Zealand rabbits fed either a diet enriched with 1% sunflower oil or the same diet with 0.5% squalene for 4 weeks. Hepatic lipids, lipid droplet area, squalene, and sterols were also monitored. The Squalene administration downregulated 9 transcripts and upregulated 13 transcripts. The gene ontology of transcripts fitted into the following main categories: transporter of proteins and sterols, lipid metabolism, lipogenesis, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties. When the results were confirmed by RT-qPCR, rabbits receiving squalene displayed significant hepatic expression changes of LOC100344884 (PNPLA3), GCK, TFCP2L1, ASCL1, ACSS2, OST4, FAM91A1, MYH6, LRRC39, LOC108176846, GLT1D1 and TREH. A squalene-enriched diet increased hepatic levels of squalene, lanosterol, dihydrolanosterol, lathosterol, zymostenol and desmosterol. Strong correlations were found among specific sterols and some squalene-changed transcripts. Incubation of the murine AML12 hepatic cell line in the presence of lanosterol, dihydrolanosterol, zymostenol and desmosterol reproduced the observed changes in the expressions of Acss2, Fam91a1 and Pnpla3. In conclusion, these findings indicate that the squalene and post-squalene metabolites play important roles in hepatic transcriptional changes required to protect the liver against malfunction.

A normalized signal calibration with a long-term reference improves the robustness of RPLC-MRM/MS lipidomics in plasma.

Improving the reliability of quantification in lipidomic analyses is crucial for its successful application in the discovery of new biomarkers or in clinical practice. In this study, we propose a workflow to improve the accuracy and precision of lipidomic results issued by the laboratory. Lipid species from 11 classes were analyzed by a targeted RPLC-MRM/MS method. The peak areas of species were used to estimate concentrations by an internal standard calibration approach (IS-calibration) and by an alternative normalization signal calibration schema (NS-calibration). The latter uses a long-term reference plasma material as a matrix-matched external calibrator whose accuracy was compared to the NIST SRM-1950 mean consensus values reported by the Interlaboratory Lipidomics Comparison Exercise. The bias of lipid concentrations showed a good accuracy for 69 of 89 quantified lipids. The quantitation of species by the NS-calibration schema improved the within- and between-batch reproducibility in quality control samples, in comparison to the usual IS-calibration approach. Moreover, the NS-calibration workflow improved the robustness of the lipidomics measurements reducing the between-batch variability (relative standard deviation <10% for 95% of lipid species) in real conditions tested throughout the analysis of 120 plasma samples. In addition, we provide a free access web tool to obtain the concentration of lipid species by the two previously mentioned quantitative approaches, providing an easy follow-up of quality control tasks related to lipidomics.

Bovine Milk-Derived Exosomes as a Drug Delivery Vehicle for miRNA-Based Therapy.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs with a known role as mediators of gene expression in crucial biological processes, which converts them into high potential contenders in the ongoing search for effective therapeutic strategies. However, extracellular RNAs are unstable and rapidly degraded, reducing the possibility of successfully exerting a biological function in distant target cells. Strategies aimed at enhancing the therapeutic potential of miRNAs include the development of efficient, tissue-specific and nonimmunogenic delivery methods. Since miRNAs were discovered to be naturally transported within exosomes, a type of extracellular vesicle that confers protection against RNase degradation and increases miRNA stability have been proposed as ideal delivery vehicles for miRNA-based therapy. Although research in this field has grown rapidly in the last few years, a standard, reproducible and cost-effective protocol for exosome isolation and extracellular RNA delivery is lacking. We aimed to evaluate the use of milk-derived extracellular vesicles as vehicles for extracellular RNA drug delivery. With this purpose, exosomes were isolated from raw bovine milk, combining ultracentrifugation and size exclusion chromatography (SEC) methodology. Isolated exosomes were then loaded with exogenous hsa-miR148a-3p, a highly expressed miRNA in milk exosomes. The suitability of exosomes as delivery vehicles for extracellular RNAs was tested by evaluating the absorption of miR-148a-3p in hepatic (HepG2) and intestinal (Caco-2) cell lines. The potential exertion of a biological effect by miR-148a-3p was assessed by gene expression analysis, using microarrays. Results support that bovine milk is a cost-effective source of exosomes which can be used as nanocarriers of functional miRNAs with a potential use in RNA-based therapy. In addition, we show here that a combination of ultracentrifugation and SEC technics improve exosome enrichment, purity, and integrity for subsequent use.

The Antipsychotic Risperidone Alters Dihydroceramide and Ceramide Composition and Plasma Membrane Function in Leukocytes In Vitro and In Vivo.

Atypical or second-generation antipsychotics are used in the treatment of psychosis and behavioral problems in older persons with dementia. However, these pharmaceutical drugs are associated with an increased risk of stroke in such patients. In this study, we evaluated the effects of risperidone treatment on phospholipid and sphingolipid composition and lipid raft function in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of older patients (mean age >88 years). The results showed that the levels of dihydroceramides, very-long-chain ceramides, and lysophosphatidylcholines decreased in PBMCs of the risperidone-treated group compared with untreated controls. These findings were confirmed by in vitro assays using human THP-1 monocytes. The reduction in the levels of very-long-chain ceramides and dihydroceramides could be due to the decrease in the expression of fatty acid elongase 3, as observed in THP-1 monocytes. Moreover, risperidone disrupted lipid raft domains in the plasma membrane of PBMCs. These results indicated that risperidone alters phospholipid and sphingolipid composition and lipid raft domains in PBMCs of older patients, potentially affecting multiple signaling pathways associated with these membrane domains.

Ellagic acid protects from myelin-associated sphingolipid loss in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), the most common model for multiple sclerosis, is characterized by inflammatory cell infiltration into the central nervous system and demyelination. Previous studies have demonstrated that administration of some polyphenols may reduce the neurological alterations of EAE. In this work, we show that ellagic acid, a polyphenolic compound, is beneficial in EAE, most likely through stimulation of ceramide biosynthesis within the brain. EAE was induced in Lewis rats by injection of guinea-pig spinal cord tissue along with Freund's complete adjuvant containing Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Clinical signs first appeared at day 8 post-immunization and reached a peak within 3 days, coincident with reduction of myelin basic protein (MBP) in the cortex. Sphingolipids, the other major components of myelin, also decreased at the acute phase of EAE, both in the cerebral cortex and in the spinal cord. In rats receiving ellagic acid in the drinking water from 2 days before immunization, the onset of the disease was delayed and clinical signs were reduced. This amelioration of clinical signs was accompanied by sustained levels of both MBP and sphingolipid in the cortex, without apparent changes in infiltration of inflammatory CD3+ T-cells, microglial activation, or weight loss, which together suggest a neuroprotective effect of ellagic acid. Finally, in glioma and oligodendroglioma cells we demonstrate that urolithins, the ellagic acid metabolites that circulate in plasma, stimulate the synthesis of ceramide. Together these data suggest that ellagic acid consumption protects against demyelination in rats with induced EAE, likely by a mechanism involving sphingolipid synthesis.

Disruption of the mevalonate pathway induces dNTP depletion and DNA damage.

The mevalonate pathway is tightly linked to cell division. Mevalonate derived non-sterol isoprenoids and cholesterol are essential for cell cycle progression and mitosis completion respectively. In the present work, we studied the effects of fluoromevalonate, a competitive inhibitor of mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase, on cell proliferation and cell cycle progression in both HL-60 and MOLT-4 cells. This enzyme catalyzes the synthesis of isopentenyl diphosphate, the first isoprenoid in the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway, consuming ATP at the same time. Inhibition of mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase was followed by a rapid accumulation of mevalonate diphosphate and the reduction of ATP concentrations, while the cell content of cholesterol was barely affected. Strikingly, mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase inhibition also resulted in the depletion of dNTP pools, which has never been reported before. These effects were accompanied by inhibition of cell proliferation and cell cycle arrest at S phase, together with the appearance of γ-H2AX foci and Chk1 activation. Inhibition of Chk1 in cells treated with fluoromevalonate resulted in premature entry into mitosis and massive cell death, indicating that the inhibition of mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase triggered a DNA damage response. Notably, the supply of exogenously deoxyribonucleosides abolished γ-H2AX formation and prevented the effects of mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase inhibition on DNA replication and cell growth. The results indicate that dNTP pool depletion caused by mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase inhibition hampered DNA replication with subsequent DNA damage, which may have important consequences for replication stress and genomic instability.

First-Generation Antipsychotic Haloperidol Alters the Functionality of the Late Endosomal/Lysosomal Compartment in Vitro.

First- and second-generation antipsychotics (FGAs and SGAs, respectively), have the ability to inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis and also to interrupt the intracellular cholesterol trafficking, interfering with low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-derived cholesterol egress from late endosomes/lysosomes. In the present work, we examined the effects of FGA haloperidol on the functionality of late endosomes/lysosomes in vitro. In HepG2 hepatocarcinoma cells incubated in the presence of 1,1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3,3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanineperchlorate (DiI)-LDL, treatment with haloperidol caused the enlargement of organelles positive for late endosome markers lysosome-associated membrane protein 2 (LAMP-2) and LBPA (lysobisphosphatidic acid), which also showed increased content of both free-cholesterol and DiI derived from LDL. This indicates the accumulation of LDL-lipids in the late endosomal/lysosomal compartment caused by haloperidol. In contrast, LDL traffic through early endosomes and the Golgi apparatus appeared to be unaffected by the antipsychotic as the distribution of both early endosome antigen 1 (EEA1) and coatomer subunit ß (ß-COP) were not perturbed. Notably, treatment with haloperidol significantly increased the lysosomal pH and decreased the activities of lysosomal protease and ß-d-galactosidase in a dose-dependent manner. We conclude that the alkalinization of the lysosomes' internal milieu induced by haloperidol affects lysosomal functionality.

Atypical antipsychotics alter cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism in vitro.

Haloperidol, a typical antipsychotic, has been shown to inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis by affecting Δ(7)-reductase, Δ(8,7)-isomerase, and Δ(14)-reductase activities, which results in the accumulation of different sterol intermediates. In the present work, we investigated the effects of atypical or second-generation antipsychotics (SGA), such as clozapine, risperidone, and ziprasidone, on intracellular lipid metabolism in different cell lines. All the SGAs tested inhibited cholesterol biosynthesis. Ziprasidone and risperidone had the same targets as haloperidol at inhibiting cholesterol biosynthesis, although with different relative activities (ziprasidone > haloperidol > risperidone). In contrast, clozapine mainly affected Δ(24)-reductase and Δ(8,7)-isomerase activities. These amphiphilic drugs also interfered with the LDL-derived cholesterol egress from the endosome/lysosome compartment, thus further reducing the cholesterol content in the endoplasmic reticulum. This triggered a homeostatic response with the stimulation of sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP)-regulated gene expression. Treatment with SGAs also increased the synthesis of complex lipids (phospholipids and triacylglycerides). Once the antipsychotics were removed from the medium, a rebound in the cholesterol biosynthesis rate was detected, and the complex-lipid synthesis further increased. In this condition, apolipoprotein B secretion was also stimulated as demonstrated in HepG2 cells. These effects of SGAs on lipid homeostasis may be relevant in the metabolic side effects of antipsychotics, especially hypertriglyceridemia.

Dihydrosphingolipids are associated with steatosis and increased fibrosis damage in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

Dihydrosphingolipids are lipids biosynthetically related to ceramides. An increase in ceramides is associated with enhanced fat storage in the liver, and inhibition of their synthesis is reported to prevent the appearance of steatosis in animal models. However, the precise association of dihydrosphingolipids with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is yet to be established. We employed a diet induced NAFLD mouse model to study the association between this class of compounds and disease progression. Mice fed a high-fat diet were sacrificed at 22, 30 and 40 weeks to reproduce the full spectrum of histological damage found in human disease, steatosis (NAFL) and steatohepatitis (NASH) with and without significant fibrosis. Blood and liver tissue samples were obtained from patients whose NAFLD severity was assessed histologically. To demonstrate the effect of dihydroceramides over NAFLD progression we treated mice with fenretinide an inhibitor of dihydroceramide desaturase-1 (DEGS1). Lipidomic analyses were performed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Triglycerides, cholesteryl esters and dihydrosphingolipids were increased in the liver of model mice in association with the degree of steatosis and fibrosis. Dihydroceramides increased with the histological severity observed in liver samples of mice (0.024 ± 0.003 nmol/mg vs 0.049 ± 0.005 nmol/mg, non-NAFLD vs NASH-fibrosis, p < 0.0001) and patients (0.105 ± 0.011 nmol/mg vs 0.165 ± 0.021 nmol/mg, p = 0.0221). Inhibition of DEGS1 induce a four-fold increase in dihydroceramides improving steatosis but increasing the inflammatory activity and fibrosis. In conclusion, the degree of histological damage in NAFLD correlate with dihydroceramide and dihydrosphingolipid accumulation. LAY SUMMARY: Accumulation of triglyceride and cholesteryl ester lipids is the hallmark of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Using lipidomics, we examined the role of dihydrosphingolipids in NAFLD progression. Our results demonstrate that de novo dihydrosphingolipid synthesis is an early event in NAFLD and the concentrations of these lipids are correlated with histological severity in both mouse and human disease.

"MiR-7 controls cholesterol biosynthesis through posttranscriptional regulation of DHCR24 expression".

Dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis is associated with several pathologies including cardiovascular diseases and neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as key post-transcriptional regulators of cholesterol metabolism. We previously established the role of miR-7 in regulating insulin resistance and amyloidosis, which represents a common pathological feature between type 2 diabetes and AD. We show here an additional metabolic function of miR-7 in cholesterol biosynthesis. We found that miR-7 blocks the last steps of the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway in vitro by targeting relevant genes including DHCR24 and SC5D posttranscriptionally. Intracranial infusion of miR-7 on an adeno-associated viral vector reduced the expression of DHCR24 in the brain of wild-type mice, supporting in vivo miR-7 targeting. We also found that cholesterol regulates endogenous levels of miR-7 in vitro, correlating with transcriptional regulation through SREBP2 binding to its promoter region. In parallel to SREBP2 inhibition, the levels of miR-7 and hnRNPK (the host gene of miR-7) were concomitantly reduced in brain in a mouse model of Niemann Pick type C1 disease and in murine fatty liver, which are both characterized by intracellular cholesterol accumulation. Taken together, the results establish a novel regulatory feedback loop by which miR-7 modulates cholesterol homeostasis at the posttranscriptional level, an effect that could be exploited for therapeutic interventions against prevalent human diseases.

HSL-knockout mouse testis exhibits class B scavenger receptor upregulation and disrupted lipid raft microdomains.

There is a tight relationship between fertility and changes in cholesterol metabolism during spermatogenesis. In the testis, class B scavenger receptors (SR-B) SR-BI, SR-BII, and LIMP II mediate the selective uptake of cholesterol esters from HDL, which are hydrolyzed to unesterified cholesterol by hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL). HSL is critical because HSL knockout (KO) male mice are sterile. The aim of the present work was to determine the effects of the lack of HSL in testis on the expression of SR-B, lipid raft composition, and related cell signaling pathways. HSL-KO mouse testis presented altered spermatogenesis associated with decreased sperm counts, sperm motility, and infertility. In wild-type (WT) testis, HSL is expressed in elongated spermatids; SR-BI, in Leydig cells and spermatids; SR-BII, in spermatocytes and spermatids but not in Leydig cells; and LIMP II, in Sertoli and Leydig cells. HSL knockout male mice have increased expression of class B scavenger receptors, disrupted caveolin-1 localization in lipid raft plasma membrane microdomains, and activated phospho-ERK, phospho-AKT, and phospho-SRC in the testis, suggesting that class B scavenger receptors are involved in cholesterol ester uptake for steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis in the testis.

Cell cycle dependence on the mevalonate pathway: Role of cholesterol and non-sterol isoprenoids.

The mevalonate pathway is responsible for the synthesis of isoprenoids, including sterols and other metabolites that are essential for diverse biological functions. Cholesterol, the main sterol in mammals, and non-sterol isoprenoids are in high demand by rapidly dividing cells. As evidence of its importance, many cell signaling pathways converge on the mevalonate pathway and these include those involved in proliferation, tumor-promotion, and tumor-suppression. As well as being a fundamental building block of cell membranes, cholesterol plays a key role in maintaining their lipid organization and biophysical properties, and it is crucial for the function of proteins located in the plasma membrane. Importantly, cholesterol and other mevalonate derivatives are essential for cell cycle progression, and their deficiency blocks different steps in the cycle. Furthermore, the accumulation of non-isoprenoid mevalonate derivatives can cause DNA replication stress. Identification of the mechanisms underlying the effects of cholesterol and other mevalonate derivatives on cell cycle progression may be useful in the search for new inhibitors, or the repurposing of preexisting cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitors to target cancer cell division. In this review, we discuss the dependence of cell division on an active mevalonate pathway and the role of different mevalonate derivatives in cell cycle progression.

Role of miR-199a-5p in the post-transcriptional regulation of ABCA1 in response to hypoxia in peritoneal macrophages.

Hypoxia is a crucial factor contributing to maintenance of atherosclerotic lesions. The ability of ABCA1 to stimulate the efflux of cholesterol from cells in the periphery, particularly foam cells in atherosclerotic plaques, is an important anti-atherosclerotic mechanism. The posttranscriptional regulation by miRNAs represents a key regulatory mechanism of a number of signaling pathways involved in atherosclerosis. Previously, miR-199a-5p has been shown to be implicated in the endocytic and retrograde intracellular transport. Although the regulation of miR-199a-5p and ABCA1 by hypoxia has been already reported independently, the role of miR-199a-5p in macrophages and its possible role in atherogenic processes such us regulation of lipid homeostasis through ABCA1 has not been yet investigated. Here, we demonstrate that both ABCA1 and miR-199a-5p show an inverse regulation by hypoxia and Ac-LDL in primary macrophages. Moreover, we demonstrated that miR-199a-5p regulates ABCA1 mRNA and protein levels by directly binding to its 3'UTR. As a result, manipulation of cellular miR-199a-5p levels alters ABCA1 expression and cholesterol efflux in primary mouse macrophages. Taken together, these results indicate that the correlation between ABCA1-miR-199a-5p could be exploited to control macrophage cholesterol efflux during the onset of atherosclerosis, where cholesterol alterations and hypoxia play a pathogenic role.

Rottlerin Stimulates Exosome/Microvesicle Release Via the Increase of Ceramide Levels Mediated by Ampk in an In Vitro Model of Intracellular Lipid Accumulation.

Exosomes/microvesicles originate from multivesicular bodies that allow the secretion of endolysosome components out of the cell. In the present work, we investigated the effects of rottlerin, a polyphenol, on exosome/microvesicle secretion in a model of intracellular lipid trafficking impairment, and elucidated the mechanism of action. In a model of lipid trafficking impairment in C6 glia cells, rottlerin increased ceramide levels, while decreasing hexosylceramide content. This was accompanied by increased exosome/microvesicle secretion, thereby reducing the concentration of lipids in the endolysosomal compartment. The reduction of hexosylceramide levels by rottlerin was attributed to the increase of ß-glucosidase (glucosylceramidase) activity, and the effects of rottlerin were abrogated by ß-glucosidase inhibitors such as isofagomine D-tartrate and AMP-deoxynojirimycin. Moreover, treatment with ML-266, a potent activator of the ß-glucosidase enzyme, recapitulated the effects of rottlerin on the sphingolipid profile and exosome/microvesicle secretion. Finally, inhibition of AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase) using compound C prevented both exosome/microvesicle secretion and the elimination of endolysosome lipids, which were promoted by rottlerin. The results showed that the decrease in intracellular lipid deposition induced by rottlerin was mediated by ß-glucosidase activation and exosome/microvesicle release via the AMPK pathway. Rottlerin consumption could represent an additional health benefit in lysosomal deposition diseases.

New Insights on the Regulation of the Insulin-Degrading Enzyme: Role of microRNAs and RBPs.

The evident implication of the insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE) in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), among its capacity to degrade insulin and amyloid-ß peptide (Aß), suggests that IDE could be an essential link in the relation between hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance and AD. However, little is known about the cellular and molecular regulation of IDE expression, and even less has been explored regarding the post-transcriptional regulation of IDE, although it represents a great molecular target of interest for therapeutic treatments. We recently described that miR-7, a novel candidate for linking AD and T2DM at the molecular level, regulates IDE and other key genes in both pathologies, including some key genes involved in the insulin signaling pathway. Here, we explored whether other miRNAs as well as other post-transcriptional regulators, such as RNA binding proteins (RBP), could potentially participate in the regulation of IDE expression in vitro. Our data showed that in addition to miR-7, miR-125, miR-490 and miR-199 regulate IDE expression at the post-transcriptional level. Moreover, we also found that IDE contains multiple potential binding sites for several RBPs, and a narrow-down prediction analysis led us to speculate on a novel regulation of IDE by RALY and HuD. Taken together, these results demonstrate the novel players controlling IDE expression that could represent potential therapeutical targets to treat several metabolic diseases with a high impact on human health, including AD and T2DM.

Hormone-sensitive lipase deficiency affects the expression of SR-BI, LDLr, and ABCA1 receptors/transporters involved in cellular cholesterol uptake and efflux and disturbs fertility in mouse testis.

Hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) hydrolyse acylglycerols, cholesteryl and retinyl esters. HSL is a key lipase in mice testis, as HSL deficiency results in male sterility. The present work study the effects of the deficiency and lack of HSL on the localization and expression of SR-BI, LDLr, and ABCA1 receptors/transporters involved in uptake and efflux of cholesterol in mice testis, to determine the impact of HSL gene dosage on testis morphology, lipid homeostasis and fertility. The results of this work show that the lack of HSL in mice alters testis morphology and spermatogenesis, decreasing sperm counts, sperm motility and increasing the amount of Leydig cells and lipid droplets. They also show that there are differences in the localization of HSL, SR-BI, LDLr and ABCA1 in HSL+/+, HSL+/- and HSL-/- mice. The deficiency or lack of HSL has effects on protein and mRNA expression of genes involved in lipid metabolisms in mouse testis. HSL-/- testis have augmented expression of SR-BI, LDLr, ABCA1 and LXRß, a critical sterol sensor that regulate multiple genes involved in lipid metabolism; whereas LDLr expression decreased in HSL+/- mice. Plin2, Abca1 and Ldlr mRNA levels increased; and LXRα (Nr1h3) and LXRß (Nr1h2) decreased in testis from HSL-/- compared with HSL+/+; with no differences in Scarb1. Together these data suggest that HSL deficiency or lack in mice testis induces lipid homeostasis alterations that affect the cellular localization and expression of key receptors/transporter involved in cellular cholesterol uptake and efflux (SR-BI, LDRr, ABCA1); alters normal cellular function and impact fertility.