International health threats and global early warning and response mechanisms.

The global community continues to incur the high costs of crisis mitigation and emergency response to outbreaks of emerging infectious diseases, such as those caused by the H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus, Ebola virus, Nipah virus, Zika virus or the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. These viruses are particularly dangerous in regions associated with poor development indicators and high vulnerability. The drivers of these disease crises include failures in the way that animal diseases are detected and reported and failures in the way in which disease response is implemented by animal health and public health systems. In addition, the lack of a coordinated response hampers disease control efforts. A comprehensive approach for disease prevention, detection and response, however, requires a coordinated and joint effort among governments, communities, donors and international networks to invest effectively in prevention systems that can identify early signals of the emergence, spillover and spread of animal pathogens at the local level. These signals include trade bans, market closures, civil unrest, heavy rains and droughts associated with climate change, and livestock intensification or changes in consumer behaviour. The global community needs to increase its investment in early warning and detection systems that can provide information that enables action to be taken at the national, regional and global levels in the event of an outbreak of a transboundary animal disease (TAD). Like any preventive measure, an early warning system requires financial resources, but these are insignificant when compared to the losses that are avoided. Building a global early warning and effective response system for outbreaks is value for money, as the benefits far outweigh the costs. The goal of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is to end hunger and poverty, which is a challenging and complex task. Building global capacity to prepare for and respond to TADs is an important element of the FAO's strategic objective to increase the resilience of livelihoods to threats and crises. Each year, livestock, and the people who rely upon them for their livelihoods, are confronted with animal disease and crises. They can strike suddenly, causing obvious illness and death, or emerge insidiously and become well established before becoming apparent. Animal disease emergencies threaten the production of, and access to, food; consequently, one of the FAO's missions is to help countries to prepare for and respond to animal health disasters.

La communauté mondiale continue à supporter le coût élevé de l'atténuation des crises ainsi que des réponses apportées en urgence aux foyers de maladies infectieuses émergentes, par exemple les infections dues au virus H5N1 de l'influenza aviaire hautement pathogène, au virus Ebola, au virus Nipah, au virus Zika ou au coronavirus responsable du syndrome respiratoire du Moyen-Orient. Ces virus sont particulièrement dangereux dans les régions les plus vulnérables et dont les indicateurs de développement sont bas. Les défaillances dans la détection et la notification des maladies animales jouent un rôle déterminant dans ces crises sanitaires, de même que l'incapacité des systèmes de santé animale et publique à mettre en œuvre une réponse sanitaire appropriée. En outre, l'absence de coordination dans les réponses apportées affaiblit les efforts pour lutter contre les maladies. La mise en place d'une méthode de prévention, de détection et de réponse intégrée face aux maladies exige que les gouvernements, les communautés, les donateurs et les réseaux internationaux associent leurs efforts et se concertent afin d'investir efficacement dans des systèmes de prévention capables de détecter à l'échelle locale les tout premiers signes d'émergence d'un agent pathogène chez les animaux, de sa transmission à d'autres espèces et de sa propagation. Parmi ces signes révélateurs on peut citer certaines interdictions d'importer, mais aussi la fermeture des marchés, l'existence de troubles civils, les changements climatiques tels que de fortes précipitations ou une sécheresse prolongée et la modification de certaines tendances en production animale ou du comportement des consommateurs. La communauté mondiale doit investir davantage dans des systèmes d'alerte précoce et de détection afin d'obtenir l'information nécessaire pour prendre des mesures appropriées, à l'échelle nationale, régional et mondiale, en cas d'apparition d'une maladie animale transfrontalière. Comme toute mesure de prévention, les systèmes d'alerte précoce doivent être correctement financés, mais cet effort est insignifiant lorsqu'on le compare aux pertes qu'il permet d'éviter. La création d'un système mondial d'alerte précoce et de réponse en cas de foyers constitue un investissement rentable, qui génère des bénéfices bien supérieurs à ses coûts. L'Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture (FAO) a pour objectif de mettre un terme à la faim et à la pauvreté dans le monde, ce qui constitue une tâche complexe et difficile. Le renforcement des capacités mondiales de préparation et de réponse en cas de maladies animales transfrontalières est un aspect important des objectifs stratégiques de la FAO visant à accroître la résilience des moyens d'existence face aux crises et aux menaces. Chaque année, le cheptel domestique et les personnes qui en tirent leur subsistance sont confrontés à des maladies animales et à des crises sanitaires. Celles-ci peuvent se déchaîner brutalement et présenter un tableau clair de morbidité et de mortalité, ou bien émerger de manière insidieuse et se propager avant l'apparition de signes manifestes. Puisque la production et l'accès aux denrées alimentaires sont menacés par les catastrophes sanitaires dues aux maladies animales, l'une des missions de la FAO consiste à aider les pays à répondre à ces catastrophes et à s'y préparer.

La comunidad mundial sigue soportando los elevados costos de las actividades de atenuación de crisis y de respuesta de emergencia ante brotes de enfermedades infecciosas emergentes como los causados por el virus de la influenza aviar altamente patógena H5N1, el del Ébola, el Nipah, el Zika o el coronavirus del síndrome respiratorio de Oriente Medio. Estos virus resultan especialmente peligrosos en regiones que presentan indicadores de desarrollo mediocres y un elevado nivel de vulnerabilidad. Entre los factores que subyacen a estas crisis sanitarias están las deficiencias en la forma de detectar y comunicar estas enfermedades y la inadecuada aplicación de medidas de respuesta por parte de los sistemas de salud pública y sanidad animal. Por añadidura, la ausencia de una respuesta coordinada lastra también las actividades de lucha. Un trabajo integral de prevención y detección de enfermedades y de respuesta a ellas exige sin embargo un esfuerzo coordinado y conjunto de gobiernos, poblaciones, donantes y redes internacionales para invertir eficazmente en sistemas de prevención que sirvan para detectar las señales precoces de aparición, extensión y propagación de patógenos animales a nivel local, señales como prohibiciones comerciales, cierres de mercados, desórdenes civiles, cambios climáticos como lluvias o sequías intensas o modificación de la dinámica de producción ganadera o los patrones de consumo. La comunidad mundial debe invertir en mayor medida en sistemas de alerta y detección rápidas que aporten información que pueda traducirse en acciones de ámbito nacional, regional y mundial en caso de brote de una enfermedad animal transfronteriza. Como toda medida de carácter preventivo, un sistema de alerta rápida requiere recursos económicos, pero su cuantía resulta insignificante en comparación con las pérdidas que se evitan. La construcción de un sistema mundial de alerta rápida y respuesta eficaz en caso de brote ofrece gran rentabilidad, por cuanto los beneficios superan holgadamente los costos. La Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO) persigue el objetivo de poner fin al hambre y la pobreza, empresa harto difícil y compleja. Dotar al mundo de la capacidad de preparación y respuesta ante enfermedades animales transfronterizas es un elemento importante del objetivo estratégico de la FAO de lograr que los medios de sustento gocen de mayor resiliencia ante crisis y amenazas. Cada año, los rebaños de animales domésticos y las personas que dependen de ellos para vivir hacen frente a enfermedades y crisis zoosanitarias, que pueden golpear de forma súbita y extender abiertamente la enfermedad y la muerte o, por el contrario, surgir insidiosamente y arraigar antes de que su presencia resulte patente. Las emergencias zoosanitarias hacen peligrar la producción de alimentos y el acceso a ellos. Una de las misiones de la FAO, por consiguiente, es la de ayudar a los países a prepararse para episodios de catástrofe zoosanitaria y a responder a este tipo de eventos cuando se produzcan.

ANALYSIS OF BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE OCCURRENCE OF WEST NILE VIRUS INFECTION IN TUNISIA.

Eco-climatic conditions are often associated with the occurrence of West Nile Disease (WND) cases. Among the complex set of biotic and abiotic factors influencing the emergence and spread of this vector-borne disease, two main variables have been considered to have a great influence on the probability of West Nile Virus (WNV) introduction and circulation in Tunisia: the presence of susceptible bird populations and the existence of geographical areas where the environmental and climatic conditions are more favourable to mosquito multiplications. The aim of this study was to identify and classify the climatic and environmental variables possibly associated with the occurrence of WNVhuman cases in Tunisia. The following environmental and climatic variables have been considered: wetlands and humid areas, Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), temperatures and elevation. A preliminary analysis for the characterization of main variables associated with areas with a history of WNV human cases in Tunisia between 1997 and 2011 has been made. This preliminary analysis clearly indicates the closeness to marshes ecosystem, where migratory bird populations are located, as an important risk factor for WNV infection. On the contrary the temperature absolute seems to be not a significant factor in Tunisian epidemiological situation. In relation to NDVI values, more complex considerations should be made.

Field observations and experiences gained from the implementation of control measures against lumpy skin disease in South-East Europe between 2015 and 2017.

The first epidemics of lumpy skin disease (LSD) reported in Europe in 2015 severely affected the cattle farming sector in several Balkan countries. After the first incursion into Greece in 2015, the disease quickly spread across the Balkan region with over 7000 outbreaks reported by the end of 2016. Thanks to a coordinated regional control and eradication policy, the spread of the disease was halted by the end of 2017. Regional large-scale vaccination campaign with effective homologous vaccines and high vaccination coverage revealed to be essential for the successful control the disease, supported by other measures such as early detection of outbreaks, total or partial stamping out and restrictions on cattle movements. The aim of this paper is to discuss the field observations, challenges and lessons learnt while dealing with the first LSD epidemics in Europe. The cross-border collaboration by the veterinary authorities of all affected countries, coordinated by the European Commission and the technical support provided by many other international organizations played a fundamental role in stopping the spread of a disease that otherwise could have expanded further to the European territory causing a large damage to the whole European cattle farming industry. The experience obtained during the control of LSD epidemics indicates that in the future LSD spread can be effectively halted, provided that appropriate surveillance plans and vigilance remains in place in the areas at risk of re-incursion, especially those bordering endemic countries.

International network for capacity building for the control of emerging viral vector-borne zoonotic diseases: ARBO-ZOONET.

Arboviruses are arthropod-borne viruses, which include West Nile fever virus (WNFV), a mosquito-borne virus, Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV), a mosquito-borne virus, and Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), a tick-borne virus. These arthropod-borne viruses can cause disease in different domestic and wild animals and in humans, posing a threat to public health because of their epidemic and zoonotic potential. In recent decades, the geographical distribution of these diseases has expanded. Outbreaks of WNF have already occurred in Europe, especially in the Mediterranean basin. Moreover, CCHF is endemic in many European countries and serious outbreaks have occurred, particularly in the Balkans, Turkey and Southern Federal Districts of Russia. In 2000, RVF was reported for the first time outside the African continent, with cases being confirmed in Saudi Arabia and Yemen. This spread was probably caused by ruminant trade and highlights that there is a threat of expansion of the virus into other parts of Asia and Europe. In the light of global warming and globalisation of trade and travel, public interest in emerging zoonotic diseases has increased. This is especially evident regarding the geographical spread of vector-borne diseases. A multi-disciplinary approach is now imperative, and groups need to collaborate in an integrated manner that includes vector control, vaccination programmes, improved therapy strategies, diagnostic tools and surveillance, public awareness, capacity building and improvement of infrastructure in endemic regions.

Development of food safety risk assessment tools based on molecular typing and WGS of Campylobacter jejuni genome.

The 'learning-by-doing' EU-FORA fellowship programme in the development of risk assessment tools based on molecular typing and WGS of Campylobacter jejuni genome was structured into two main activities: the primary one focused on training on risk assessment methodology and the secondary one in starting and enhancing the cooperation between the hosting and home organisations, or other joint activities. The primary activities had three subsequent work packages (WPs): WP1 data organisation, WP2 cluster and association analyses, and WP3 development of risk assessment models. The secondary activities have branched into one workshop and the initiation of a cooperation programme between the hosting and home organisations. In the last quarter, the fellow had contributed to the characterisation of some pathogens in possible response to a changing climate, part of the CLEFSA project. The fellow attended various forms of training: online and on-site courses, and also participated at several conferences and meetings for improving his knowledge and skills, contributing to performing the Campylobacter risk assessment and source attribution.

Phylogenetic analysis of West Nile virus isolated in Italy in 2008.

In Italy the first occurrence of West Nile virus (WNV) infection was reported in Tuscany region during the late summer of 1998. In August 2008, the WNV infection re-emerged in Italy, in areas surrounding the Po river delta, and involving three regions Lombardy, Emilia Romagna and Veneto. WNV was isolated from blood and organs samples of one horse, one donkey, one pigeon (Columba livia) and three magpies (Pica pica). The phylogenetic analysis of the isolates, conducted on 255 bp in the region coding for the E protein, indicates that these isolates belong to the lineage I among the European strains. According to the analysis, both the 1998 and 2008 Italian strains as well as isolates from Romania, Russia, Senegal and Kenya fell in the same sub-cluster.

Sero-prevalence and epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants in Libya.

We conducted a cross-sectional study during 2013 to quantify the serological prevalence of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) infection and to investigate host factors associated with PPR infection in small ruminants in Libya. A two-stage sampling design was carried out. A total number of 148 flocks owning at least 100 heads each were randomly selected. Sixteen to forty-eight samples were collected from each selected flock. A total number of 3,508 serum samples from unvaccinated animals were collected and analysed at IZSLER Brescia, Italy, by using competitive ELISA, IDvet innovative diagnostics (IDvet 310, France). The overall serological prevalence among SR was 33% (95% CI: 31.4-34.5). Significant differences between the prevalence in the geographical branches were observed. The lowest prevalence level was observed in Zawiyah branch (16.1%), whereas the highest value was obtained for the Sabha branch (56.8%). Considering the age, a serological prevalence of 24.7%, 31.5% and 42.1% was observed in SR <1 year, between 1 and 2 years and more than 2 years, respectively. Statistically significant differences (p < .001) in the sero-prevalence levels were also observed between the age groups. Our findings suggest that the southern part of Libya could be more exposed to the infections coming from the neighbouring countries and this should be better investigated to correctly identify wherever specific entry points can be considered at higher risk than others. The results also confirmed the endemic status of PPR in Libya, with a constant exposure to the infection of the animals during their life. In the framework of the global strategy for control and eradication of PPR, our results, even if obtained by a preliminary study, can contribute to the assessment of the epidemiological situation of PPR in Libya as required by the Stage 1 of the plan.

Identification of Suitable Areas for West Nile Virus Circulation in Tunisia.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-transmitted Flavivirus belonging to the Japanese encephalitis antigenic complex of the Flaviviridae family. It is transmitted primarily by the bite of infected mosquitoes, particularly Culex spp. and Aedes/Ochlerotatus spp., which acquire the virus by feeding on viraemic birds. Humans, horses and other mammals are regarded as incidental or dead-end hosts. In the last decades, an increasing number of cases of WNV infection in horses and humans have been notified in the Mediterranean basin. In Tunisia, human cases of WNV-related meningoencephalitis were detected in 1997, 2003, 2007, 2010, 2011 and 2012. Based on the analysis of climatic and environmental conditions found in the locations where human cases have been reported in 2012, the aim of this study was to identify similar areas in Tunisia potentially at risk of disease occurrence. Data related to 85 neuroinvasive West Nile fever (WNF) human cases were georeferenced and a set of environmental and climatic variables (wetlands and humid areas, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), temperatures and elevation, migratory bird settlements) were used in the analysis. Areas, ecologically similar to those where human cases were detected, were identified using the Mahalanobis distance statistic. A leave-one-out cross-validation was performed to validate the sensitivity of the model, and 78 of 85 points were correctly classified.

Urgent request on avian influenza.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N8 is currently causing an epizootic in Europe, infecting many poultry holdings as well as captive and wild bird species in more than 10 countries. Given the clear clinical manifestation, passive surveillance is considered the most effective means of detecting infected wild and domestic birds. Testing samples from new species and non-previously reported areas is key to determine the geographic spread of HPAIV H5N8 2016 in wild birds. Testing limited numbers of dead wild birds in previously reported areas is useful when it is relevant to know whether the virus is still present in the area or not, e.g. before restrictive measures in poultry are to be lifted. To prevent introduction of HPAIV from wild birds into poultry, strict biosecurity implemented and maintained by the poultry farmers is the most important measure. Providing holding-specific biosecurity guidance is strongly recommended as it is expected to have a high impact on the achieved biosecurity level of the holding. This is preferably done during peace time to increase preparedness for future outbreaks. The location and size of control and in particular monitoring areas for poultry associated with positive wild bird findings are best based on knowledge of the wider habitat and flight distance of the affected wild bird species. It is recommended to increase awareness among poultry farmers in these established areas in order to enhance passive surveillance and to implement enhanced biosecurity measures including poultry confinement. There is no scientific evidence suggesting a different effectiveness of the protection measures on the introduction into poultry holdings and subsequent spread of HPAIV when applied to H5N8, H5N1 or other notifiable HPAI viruses.

A Transitional Model for the Evaluation of West Nile Virus Transmission in Italy.

In August 2008, after 10 years of apparent silence, West Nile virus (WNV) infection re-emerged in northern Italy, spreading through the territories of three regions. In the following years, new cases occurred in the same area and additional foci of infection were observed in central and southern Italy, involving also Sicily and Sardinia islands. The Italian Ministry of Health ordered to test by RT-PCR all blood and organ donors from 15th June to 15th November of each year in the infected areas. The period at risk of WNV transmission was defined on the basis of literature data, but a more scientific estimation of the transmission season, under Italian circumstances, needs to be performed. A transitional model previously developed by other Authors was applied and adapted to Italian circumstances, to describe and quantify the WNV transmission cycle between birds and mosquitoes. Culex spp. was considered the main vector, and mosquito parameters were adapted to this genus. Magpies (Pica pica) were considered the main bird host. The model was partially validated through the results of the entomological surveys carried out in central Italy and in Po Valley. The results of the transitional model permitted to calculate the basic reproduction number (R0 ) during 2010 for the whole Italian territory at 1 km of spatial resolution, estimating the risk of WNV transmission during the year and creating detailed risk maps for Italy. The mean values of R0 for the whole Italy varied between 0.4 and 4.8, with values >1 from the end of May to the middle of September. The coastal and flat zones of Italy showed the highest R0 values. Although partially validated, the model showed a substantial acceptable capacity of defining the period at major risk of WNV transmission in Italy, helping Public health authorities in the application of appropriate and timely control and preventive measures.

The use of a web-based interactive geographical information system for the surveillance of bluetongue in Italy.

Since 2000 Italy has experienced five epidemics of bluetongue, an arthropod-borne disease that affects primarily sheep and asymptomatically cattle, goats and wildlife ruminants. In four years the disease spread through Southern and Central Italy, involving 14 Italian regions out of 20. To control the disease, the Ministry of Health established a surveillance system that included clinical, entomological and serological surveillance elements. The National Reference Centre for Veterinary Epidemiology--Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise 'G. Caporale'--developed a Web-based National Information System (NIS) and a Geographical Information System (GIS)to collect and manage data from Veterinary Services across Italy. The system was designed to gather and spread information in order to support the management of control activities and to provide an early warning system. Surveillance data are displayed to the user in different ways: reports, tables and interactive maps.

Vaccination in the control strategy of bluetongue in Italy.

The incursion of bluetongue (BT) in Italy, in August 2000, caused heavy economic losses, partly due to the direct effect of the disease on the animals, but mostly due to indirect losses due to ruminant movement restrictions conducive to heavy losses to the cattle and sheep industry. To limit losses due to both disease and virus circulation, which was the cause of movement restrictions, the Italian Ministry of Health in May 2001 ordered the vaccination of animals of all domestic ruminant species in infected and "at risk" areas. The vaccination strategy derived from a risk assessment that suggested that the vaccination of all domestic ruminants could reduce both direct losses and virus circulation significantly. The different levels of vaccination coverage, achieved in the various regions of Italy, had clear consequences on the spread of both disease and infection. In regions where more than 80% of the target populations were vaccinated properly, the disease disappeared almost completely and virus circulation was significantly reduced, as documented by the serological surveillance system, after a single vaccination cycle. This led to a significant decrease in the areas subject to movement restrictions. Data generated by both field and controlled experiments contributed to modify the EU approach to BT and to some of the conclusions of the Third OIE International Symposium on Bluetongue that will probably lead to a modification of the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) standard.

Import risk analysis: the experience of Italy.

The authors propose a contribution to the possible revision of Chapters 1.4.1. and 1.4.2. of the International Animal Health Code (Code) of the Office International des Epizooties (OIE). In particular, data are presented to illustrate some of the inadequacies of both the rationale and the results of the method for risk assessment reported in the Code. The method suggested by the Code for risk assessment is based on the calculation of the 'probability of the occurrence of at least one outbreak' of a given disease following the importation of a given quantity of either live animals or animal products (unrestricted risk estimate). This is usually undertaken when dealing with rare events. For a country such as Italy, this method may not be particularly useful as the frequency of disease outbreaks is what should be estimated, so as to provide decision makers with appropriate and relevant information. Practical use of risk information generated by the use of the OIE risk assessment method for swine vesicular disease (SVD) would have encouraged the Chief Veterinary Officer of Italy to prohibit all imports of swine from the Netherlands and Belgium for at least two years in the early 1990s, with the consequential heavy economic losses for both Italy and the exporting countries. On the contrary, the number of actual outbreaks of the disease due to direct imports of swine from Member States of the European Union (EU), which occurred in Italy in 1992, 1993 and 1994 was very low (two to five outbreaks due to direct imports of swine from the Netherlands and one to two from Belgium). An example of a method for assessing the risks associated with high volumes of trade in commodities is also described. This method is based on the Monte Carlo simulation and provides the information required to evaluate the costs of the strategies compared. The method can be used to predict the number of outbreaks which are likely to occur following importation and enables a comparison to be made of alternative safeguards. This would lead to the selection of the most cost-effective one. The comparison is conducted using risk curves and allows a quantitative evaluation and comparison to be made of various scenarios, varying from an absence of safeguards to combinations of various safeguards.

Importance of the traceability of animals and animal products in epidemiology.

Traceability of animals and animal products has become a priority for governments of the developed countries, due to consumer demand for comprehensive and integrated food safety policies. In addition to analysing the differences between traceback and traceability systems, the authors describe some applications of animal traceback systems and the principal characteristics of an animal identification and registration system. The importance of a traceability system for food-borne risk assessment and management, and the most recent approaches towards a comprehensive and integrated animal health and food safety policy are reported.

Implementation of a system for the regional management of animal health emergencies.

A telematic system to support decisions and operations in case of animal health emergencies has been designed and implemented in the Abruzzo region of Italy. The system aims to improve decision-making by Veterinary Services in the event of an outbreak of exotic disease. The system has been tested, first by a simulated outbreak of foot and mouth disease, and then during an outbreak of swine vesicular disease. Critical problems were detected and corrected in both cases.

First detection of co-circulation of West Nile and Usutu viruses in equids in the south-west of Tunisia.

In the last fifteen years, West Nile Virus (WNV) has dramatically expanded its geographic range and is now considered the most widespread arbovirus in the world. In Tunisia, West Nile Fever (WNF) outbreaks were reported in humans in 1997, 2003 and 2012. Usutu Virus (USUV), which is a 'new' emerging Flavivirus antigenically close to WNV, has never been reported in Tunisia. A serological investigation in 284 equids was conducted in 2012 in the southern west region of the country to assess the presence and prevalence of the WNV and USUV infection. Of the 284 samples tested by competitive enzyme-linked immunoassay, 129 were positive. Of these, 120 (42.3%) had WNV-specific neutralizing antibodies. The prevalence was significantly higher in areas closer to the oasis compared with that of the surrounding arid areas. Antibody titres against USUV were also reported in 10 equids. This was the first evidence of USUV circulation in Tunisia. Data recorded by this study indicate that WNV and USUV have circulated/are circulating in the region and that there is an urgent need to adapt the current surveillance programmes to this new scenario.

An integrated web system to support veterinary activities in Italy for the management of information in epidemic emergencies.

The management of public health emergencies is improved by quick, exhaustive and standardized flow of data on disease outbreaks, by using specific tools for data collection, registration and analysis. In this context, the National Information System for the Notification of Outbreaks of Animal Diseases (SIMAN) has been developed in Italy to collect and share data on the notifications of outbreaks of animal diseases. SIMAN is connected through web services to the national database of animals and holdings (BDN) and has been integrated with tools for the management of epidemic emergencies. The website has been updated with a section dedicated to the contingency planning in case of epidemic emergency. EpiTrace is one such useful tool also integrated in the BDN and based on the Social Network Analysis (SNA) and on network epidemiological models. This tool gives the possibility of assessing the risk associated to holdings and animals on the basis of their trade, in order to support the veterinary services in tracing back and forward the animals in case of outbreaks of infectious diseases.

Development of an active risk-based surveillance strategy for avian influenza in Cuba.

The authors designed a risk-based approach to the selection of poultry flocks to be sampled in order to further improve the sensitivity of avian influenza (AI) active surveillance programme in Cuba. The study focused on the western region of Cuba, which harbours nearly 70% of national poultry holdings and comprise several wetlands where migratory waterfowl settle (migratory waterfowl settlements - MWS). The model took into account the potential risk of commercial poultry farms in western Cuba contracting from migratory waterfowl of the orders Anseriformes and Charadriiformes through dispersion for pasturing of migratory birds around the MWS. We computed spatial risk index by geographical analysis with Python scripts in ESRI(®) ArcGIS 10 on data projected in the reference system NAD 1927-UTM17. Farms located closer to MWS had the highest values for the risk indicator pj and in total 31 farms were chosen for targeted surveillance during the risk period. The authors proposed to start active surveillance in the study area 3 weeks after the onset of Anseriformes migration, with additional sampling repeated twice in the same selected poultry farms at 15 days interval (Comin et al., 2012; EFSA, 2008) to cover the whole migration season. In this way, the antibody detectability would be favoured in case of either a posterior AI introduction or enhancement of a previous seroprevalence under the sensitivity level. The model identified the areas with higher risk for AIV introduction from MW, aiming at selecting poultry premises for the application of risk-based surveillance. Given the infrequency of HPAI introduction into domestic poultry populations and the relative paucity of occurrences of LPAI epidemics, the evaluation of the effectiveness of this approach would require its application for several migration seasons to allow the collection of sufficient reliable data.

The Italian information system on zoonoses data collection.

In the framework of the international obligations subscribed by the Italian government, the Italian Ministry of Health should provide the European Union (EU) (European Commission, European Food Safety Authority - EFSA) with a set of data and information related to the report and the spread of zoonoses and to the activities put in place for monitoring and control of zoonoses. In 2008, the Italian Ministry of Health commissioned the Istituto G. Caporale (ICT) to implement an information system able to provide information and data on the monitoring and control of zoonoses in the national territory, in accordance with the national and community legislation. The system is part of the e-Government process that involves all public administrations of the EU and refers to the use of information and communication technologies for the digital processing of documents in order to obtain simplification and interoperability of administrative procedures through the Internet, as defined in the strategic lines published by the National Centre for Information Systems in Public Administration (DigitPA) in 2009-2011.