Implementing electronic identification for performance recording in sheep: I. Manual versus semiautomatic and automatic recording systems in dairy and meat farms.

With the aim of assessing the secondary benefits of using electronic identification (e-ID) in sheep farms, we compared the use of manual (M), semiautomatic (SA), and automatic (AU) data-collection systems for performance recording (i.e., milk, lambing, and weight) in 3 experiments. Ewes were identified with visual ear tags and electronic rumen boluses. The M system consisted of visual ear tags, on-paper data recording, and manual data uploading to a computer; the use of a personal digital assistant (PDA) for data recording and data uploading was also done in M. The SA system used a handheld reader (HHR) for e-ID, data recording, and uploading. Both PDA and HHR used Bluetooth for uploading. The AU system was only used for body weight recording and consisted of e-ID, data recording in an electronic scale, and data uploading. In experiment 1, M and SA milk-recording systems were compared in a flock of 48 dairy ewes. Ewes were milked once- (×1, n=24) or twice- (×2, n=24) daily in a 2 × 12 milking parlor and processed in groups of 24. Milk yield (1.21 ± 0.04 L/d, on average) was 36% lower in ×1 than ×2 ewes and milk recording time correlated positively with milk yield (R(2)=0.71). Data transfer was markedly faster for PDA and HHR than for M. As a result, overall milk recording time was faster in SA (×1=12.1 ± 0.6 min/24 ewes; ×2=22.1 ± 0.9 min/24 ewes) than M (×1=14.9 ± 0.6 min/24 ewes; ×2=27.9 ± 1.0 min/24 ewes). No differences between PDA and HHR were detected. Time savings, with regard to M, were greater for ×2 than for ×1 (5.6 ± 0.2 vs. 2.8 ± 0.1 min per 24 ewes, respectively), but similar for PDA and HHR. Data transfer errors averaged 3.6% in M, whereas no errors were found in either SA system. In experiment 2, 73 dairy and 80 meat ewes were monitored at lambing using M and SA. Overall time for lambing recording was greater in M than SA in dairy (1.67 ± 0.06 vs. 0.87 ± 0.04 min/ewe) and meat (1.30 ± 0.03 vs. 0.73 ± 0.03 min/ewe) ewes. Recording errors were greater in dairy (9.6%) than in meat (1.9%) ewes. Data uploading errors only occurred in M (4.9%). In experiment 3, 120 dairy and 120 meat ewes were weighed using M and AU systems. In both flocks, mean BW recording and data uploading times, as well as overall BW recording time (0.63 ± 0.02 and 0.25 ± 0.01 min/ewe, respectively) were greater in M than in AU, and uploading errors only occurred in M (8.8%). In conclusion, HHR and PDA systems were time-effective for performance recording, both saving time and improving data accuracy. Working load and time for ewe identification were faster in HHR but it did not affect the performance recording time. The PDA was the fastest device for data download. Further research will evaluate the costs of implementing e-ID for performance recording and other uses in sheep farms.

Modeling the retention of rumen boluses for the electronic identification of goats.

We constructed a regression model to estimate the retention of electronic boluses in goats. With this aim, 2,482 boluses were administered to goats from dairy (Murciano-Granadina, n=1,326; French Alpine, n=381) and meat (Blanca de Rasquera, n=532) breeds. A total of 19 bolus types made of materials (ceramic, plastic tubes filled with concrete or silicone, and ballasts) differing in their specific gravity (SG) were used, thereby obtaining a wide variation in bolus features: diameter (9 to 22 mm), length (37 to 84 mm), weight (5 to 111 g), volume (2.6 to 26 mL), and SG (1.0 to 5.5). Each bolus contained a half-duplex glass encapsulated transponder (32 × 3.8mm) and was administered using adapted balling guns. Murciano-Granadina and Blanca de Rasquera goats also wore 2 visual plastic ear tags: V1 (double flag, 5.1g) and V2 (flag-button, 4.2g). No data on ear tags in French Alpine goats was available. Bolus and ear tag retention [(retained/monitored) × 100] was recorded for at least 1 yr. Dynamic reading efficiency [(dynamic reading/static reading) × 100] was also evaluated from 1,496 bolus readings. No administration incidences or apparent negative behavior or performance effects were observed for any bolus type. Static reading efficiency of retained boluses was 100%, except for the prototypes with metal ballasts, which yielded a 93.3% reading efficiency. Retention of metal-ballasted boluses was confirmed using x-ray equipment. Excluding ballasted boluses, a 99.5% dynamic reading efficiency was obtained. Ear tag losses were 6.5% for V1 and 3.7% for V2, ranging from 3.2 to 7.8% depending on ear tag type and goat breed. Bolus retention varied (0 to 100%) according to their physical features. Obtained data allowed the fitting of a logistic model of bolus retention rate according to bolus volume and weight (R(2) = 0.98); the SG was implicitly considered. Estimated weight and SG to produce medium- (15 mL) and standard-sized (22 mL) boluses for 99.95% retention rate in goats were 73.0 and 94.1g, and 4.87 and 4.28, respectively. Mini-boluses are not recommended, as none of the available radio translucent materials reach the required SG. In conclusion, increase of SG was fundamental to optimize bolus retention. Medium-sized boluses (10 to 15 mL; SG 5.8 to 4.9) for early administration and efficient retention in adult goats could be produced, thereby addressing the problem of using proper boluses for goat identification.

Readability of visual and electronic leg tags versus rumen boluses and electronic ear tags for the permanent identification of dairy goats.

Murciano-Granadina dairy goats (n=220) were used to assess the performance of visual and electronic identification devices: 1) leg tags (LT) on the shank of the right hind leg (metatarsus) consisting of plastic bands (181 × 39mm, 21g; n=220) printed with a 3-digit code and closed with 2 types of electronic button tags (ET1, 3.9 g, 26 mm o.d., n=90; ET2, 5.5 g, 25 mm o.d., n=130); 2) electronic rumen boluses (RB, 75 g, 68 × 21 mm, n=220) containing 32 × 3.8 mm transponders; 3) electronic ear tags (EE, button-button, 4.8 g, 24 mm, n=47); and 4) visual plastic ear tags (VE, flag-button, 4.2 g, 40 × 38 mm, n=220). The shank circumference of 47 replacement kids (5 to 6 mo of age) and 103 adult goats was measured to evaluate the proper circumference for fastened LT. Goats were identified with RB and VE before the experiment. Time for leg tagging, reading, and data recording with a handheld transceiver was measured. Readability [(read/readable) × 100] was monitored for 1 yr with goats restrained in the milking parlor. Reading time and errors of RB and ET2 in the milking parlor using the handheld transceiver were recorded. Shank circumference of kids (70±1 mm) was 79.5% of that in adult goats (88±1 mm), thus LT (107±1 mm inner circumference) were only applied to adult goats as they were inadequate for 6-mo-old kids. Time for leg tagging and data recording was 53±3 s. At 1 yr, readability of RB was 96.5%. No LT losses occurred and all were visually readable, although 3 (1.5%) had to be removed due to limping, leading to a final LT retention of 98.5%. Moreover, 7 (3.6%) LT were found open and electronically unreadable. Readability of button transponders, excluding removed LT, was 93.6% (3 lost and 2 unreadable) for ET1, and 98.3% (2 lost) for ET2. Readability was 95.7 and 97.0% in EE and VE ear tags, respectively. Only LT and ET1 readabilities differed. Reading time and reading errors (0.3 vs. 0%) in the milking parlor were greater for RB (61.2s) than for ET2 (45.9s). In conclusion, LT were not adequate for the identification of goat kids under 6 mo of age. Only LT with ET2 transponders met International Committee for Animal Recording requirements for official identification of adult goats (readability >98%) under the conditions of this experiment.

Long-term performance of visual and electronic identification devices in dairy goats.

Dairy goat kids born during a 3-yr period (n = 97) and their mothers (n = 29) were used for a long-term evaluation of the performance of 9 types of identification (ID) devices. Kids wore multiple ID devices: visual ear tags (V1, tip-tag, n = 47; V2, official, n = 50), electronic ear tags (E1, button-button, n = 46; E2, flag-button, n = 46), electronic rumen boluses (B1, mini-bolus 14 g, n = 92; B2, mini-bolus 20 g, n = 28; B3, standard bolus 75 g, n = 34) and glass-encapsulated transponders injected in the forefeet (T1, 15 mm, n = 75; T2, 12 mm, n = 100). Visual ear tags were applied at birth and removed in yearlings, whereas electronic ear tags were applied after bolusing with B1 (6.7 kg BW and 30 d, on average); B2 were administered in the event of a B1 loss, and B3 in case of a B2 loss and in goat does. At d 60 of age, kids were allocated into 2 groups to evaluate the effects of rearing system on ID. Treatments were: weaned (n = 46), and not weaned (n = 46) where kids suckled a milk substitute until d 150. Readability of ID devices (read/readable x 100) was monitored from 1 to 3 yr of age, depending on device and year of birth. Long-term readability was analyzed using a nonparametric survival analysis. A total of 3.3% infections and 6.5% tissue reactions were reported for electronic ear tags, but ears were fully healed in yearlings. Weaning numerically reduced B1 losses at d 150 (weaned, 84.8% vs. not weaned, 73.3%). Readability of visual ear tags in yearlings (V1, 82.9%; V2, 94.0%) was lower than for electronic ear tags (E1 and E2, 100%). Mini-bolus readability in yearlings did not differ by type (B1, 71.4%; B2, 84.6%) or with visual ear tags. No effect of inject type was reported (T1, 92.0%; T2, 96.0%). Survival analysis after yr 3 gave the greatest readability value for E1 (100%), which did not differ from B3 (96.8%). The lowest readability was estimated for B1 (66.3%), followed by E2 (79.8%), B2 (81.4%), and T1 (90.4%). In conclusion, button-button electronic ear tags and standard boluses were the more efficient devices under our conditions, their readability values being greater than injects, electronic mini-boluses, and visual and flag-button electronic ear tags. Transponders injected in the forefeet and mini-boluses used here are not recommended in practice. Further research on E1 and B3 electronic devices should be done in a higher number of goats to confirm the current results.

Comparison of manual versus semiautomatic milk recording systems in dairy goats.

A total of 24 Murciano-Granadina dairy goats in early-midlactation were used to compare the labor time and data collection efficiency of using manual (M) vs. semiautomated (SA) systems for milk recording. Goats were milked once daily in a 2 x 12 parallel platform, with 6 milking units on each side. The M system used visual identification (ID) by large plastic ear tags, on-paper data recording, and data manually uploaded to a computer. The SA system used electronic ID, automatic ID, manual data recording on reader keyboard, and automatic data uploading to computer by Bluetooth connection. Data were collected for groups of 2 x 12 goats for 15 test days of each system during a period of 70 d. Time data were converted to a decimal scale. No difference in milk recording time between M and SA (1.32 +/- 0.03 and 1.34 +/- 0.03 min/goat, respectively) was observed. Time needed for transferring data to the computer was greater for M when compared with SA (0.20 +/- 0.01 and 0.05 +/- 0.01 min/goat). Overall milk recording time was greater in M than in SA (1.52 +/- 0.04 vs. 1.39 +/- 0.04 min/goat), the latter decreasing with operator training. Time for transferring milk recording data to the computer was 4.81 +/- 0.34 and 1.09 +/- 0.10 min for M and SA groups of 24 goats, respectively, but only increased by 0.19 min in SA for each additional 24 goats. No difference in errors of data acquisition was detected between M and SA systems during milk recording (0.6%), but an additional 1.1% error was found in the M system during data uploading. Predicted differences between M and SA increased with the number of goats processed on the test-day. Reduction in labor time cost ranged from euro0.5 to 12.9 (US$0.7 to 17.4) per milk recording, according to number of goats from 24 to 480 goats and accounted for 40% of the electronic ID costs. In conclusion, electronic ID was more efficient for labor costs and resulted in fewer data errors, the benefit being greater with trained operators and larger goat herds.

Mammogenesis and induced lactation with or without reserpine in nulliparous dairy goats.

Nulliparous goats were used to evaluate the effects of a standard protocol for inducing lactation with or without using a prolactin-releasing agent (reserpine). Estrus was synchronized and goats were submitted to daily s.c. injections of estradiol-17beta and progesterone (0.5 and 1.25 mg/kg of body weight, respectively) for 7 d. The goats were divided into 2 groups and injected i.m. with 1 mg/d of reserpine (n = 7) or the vehicle (n = 7) on d 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20. Lactation was initiated by i.m. injections of dexamethasone (10 mg/d) from d 18 to 20. Goats were machine milked once daily from d 21 to 120, at which time they were mated with herd sires. Milk was measured and sampled daily during wk 1 of lactation and weekly thereafter. Udder traits were measured in all goats at d -2 (before the induction treatment) and on d 35 and 100 (during lactation). Goats initiated lactation on d 21 (100%) and milk yield increased thereafter. The milk yield of control and reserpine-treated goats increased as lactation advanced, peaking at wk 10 of lactation, when reserpine-treated goats yielded 1,079 +/- 89 mL/d of milk compared with 850 +/- 96 mL/d for control goats. Yet milk yield at the peak was only 55% of the peak milk yield observed in contemporary primiparous goats. The composition of initial milk (d 21) was different from that expected for colostrum. Milk composition stabilized after d 3 of lactation. There were no differences among groups for milk fat, protein, casein, or whey protein, but milk from control goats contained greater nonprotein nitrogen than that from reserpine-treated goats (0.48 +/- 0.02 vs. 0.41 +/- 0.02%). Teat length increased from 24.7 +/- 1.1 to 34.5 +/- 2.4 mm in control goats during mammogenesis (d -2 to 35), but stabilized in reserpine goats (25.2 +/- 2.2 mm). The distance between teats (11.5 +/- 0.4 cm), and the volume (922 +/- 63 mL) and depth (15.6 +/- 0.60 cm) of the udder increased similarly in both groups during mammogenesis and lactation. After mating, 82% of herdmates became pregnant, whereas only 21% of the lactation-induced goats conceived (1 reserpine-treated and 2 control goats). In conclusion, lactation induction was effective in nulliparous goats, but neither milk yield nor the side effects on fertility seem to support its recommendation.

Cognitive function in hypertension: a community based study.

Cognitive function was investigated in a random sample of subjects on the general practitioners' registry of hypertensive patients in an inner city area and matched with normotensive controls. The response rate was 66% giving 90 matched pairs, average age 63 yrs, with 47% men. There was no difference in educational background or measures of reading ability between the two groups. Cognitive function tests showed a consistent trend of poorer performance in hypertensives, with significant differences in Verbal Learning (immediate recall and retention). Age was inversely related to cognitive function, but no additional deterioration with increasing age was shown in hypertensives.

Determining the optimal age for recording the retinal vascular pattern image of lambs.

Newborn Ripollesa lambs (n = 143) were used to assess the optimal age at which the vascular pattern of the retina can be used as a reference for identification and traceability. Retinal images from both eyes were recorded from birth to yearling (d 1, 8, 30, 82, 180, and 388 of age) in duplicate (2,534 images) using a digital camera specially designed for livestock (Optibrand, Fort Collins, CO). Intra- and inter-age image comparisons (9,316 pairs of images) were carried out, and matching score (MS) was used as the exclusion criterion of lamb identity (MS <70). Retinal images were used for verifying the identity of live lambs of 4 Spanish commercial categories: milk-fed lambs (MF; "lechal," 1 mo of age and <12 kg of BW, n = 136); light fattened lambs (LF; "recental," 3 mo of age and ~25 kg of BW, n = 134); recruited replacement lambs (RR; "ovino mayor," 6 mo of age and ~35 kg of BW, n = 59); and yearling replacement lambs (YR; >12 mo of age and ~50 kg of BW, n = 25). Values of MS were treated with a model based on the 1-inflated bivariate beta distribution, and treated data were compared by using a likelihood ratio test. Intra-age image comparisons showed that average MS and percentage of images with MS ≥70 increased (P < 0.05) with lamb age from d 1 to 82 (81.0 ± 1.0 to 95.9 ± 0.4, and 75.8 to 100%, respectively) and reached a plateau thereafter. Inter-age retinal image comparisons for MF lambs at 30 d showed that the percentage of images with MS ≥70 was greater when reference images at 8 d were used instead of 1-d images (94.8 vs. 87.4%, respectively; P < 0.05). In LF lambs, 30-d retinal images matched better than those at 8 d of age (99.6 vs. 93.6%, respectively; P < 0.05). Regarding RR and YR lambs, the 82-d images allowed the confirmation of 100% lamb identity, whereas 8-d images showed a smaller (P < 0.05) percentage of matching (87.9 and 89.8%, respectively, for RR and YR lambs; P > 0.05); no differences were detected for 30-d images (97.4 and 98.0%, respectively, for RR and YR lambs; P > 0.05). Total percentage of matching was achieved when images were obtained from older lambs (180 and 388 d). In conclusion, retinal imaging was a useful tool for verifying the identity and auditing the traceability of live lambs from suckling to yearling. Matching scores were satisfactory when the reference retinal images were obtained from 1-mo-old or older lambs.

Retinal image recognition for verifying the identity of fattening and replacement lambs.

With the objective of verifying the presumed identity of sheep in a traceability study based on visual ear tags and electronic boluses, retinal image recognition was used as an auditing biomarker on 152 lambs of 2 dairy breeds (Manchega, n=82; Lacaune, n=70). Lambs were identified with temporary ear tags (birth to weaning), and with official ear tags and electronic mini-boluses (weaning to yearling). At 3 mo of age, 58 lambs were recruited for flock replacement, and the rest were transported to a slaughterhouse. Retinal images (RI) and capturing times (CT) were recorded from the left and right eyes of each lamb in duplicate and by the same operator using an OptiReader device (Optibrand, Fort Collins, CO) at 3, 6, and 12 mo of age in 152, 58, and 58 lambs, respectively. The 3-mo RI were used as reference images and to assess operator training and accuracy of the technique. Intra- and inter-age comparisons were made to obtain the matching score (MS; 0 to 100) of pairs of RI from the same eye, using Optibrand's software. Operator skill improved with training sessions, but MS reached a plateau after the sixth session (264 images; MS=93.2 ± 1.5). Values of CT also decreased in trained compared with untrained operators (63 ± 5 vs. 144 ± 15 s, respectively; P < 0.001). Training data were eliminated from further analysis. Matching exclusion criteria were estimated from trained operator images at random (804 images) using a nonparametric receiver operating characteristic curve analysis for MS=70. No breed, eye, or age effects were detected in the MS intra-age comparisons at 3-, 6-, and 12-mo periods, which averaged 96.3 ± 0.3. Capturing time was longer in Lacaune than in Manchega lambs (P < 0.01) and decreased by age (34 ± 4 and 21 ± 2 s, for 6- and 12-mo periods, respectively; P < 0.001). Regarding lamb traceability, 2.8% temporary ear tags were lost from birth to weaning (traceability, 97.2%), but no official ear tag or mini-bolus losses were reported from weaning to yearling (traceability, 100%). Inter-age MS comparison, used as the biomarker for traceability auditing, did not vary by age or breed, on average being 92.6 ± 0.5. Using the 3-mo RI as reference, all 6- and 12-mo RI showed MS >70, which supported 100% lamb traceability. In conclusion, retinal imaging was an accurate technique for auditing the identity of living lambs from weaning to yearling.

Extended field test on the use of visual ear tags and electronic boluses for the identification of different goat breeds in the United States.

A total of 295 goats from 4 breeds (Alpine, n = 74; Angora, n = 75; Boer-cross, n = 73; Spanish, n = 73) were used to assess the retention of 3 types of electronic ruminal boluses (B1, 20 g, n = 95; B2, 75 g, n = 100; and B3, 82 g, n = 100) according to breed and feeding conditions. Time for bolus administration, reading with a handheld reader, and animal data recording (goat identification, breed, and bolus type) were registered. Each goat was also identified with 1 flag-button plastic ear tag (4.6 g, 51 x 41 mm). Retention of boluses and ear tags was regularly monitored for 1 yr. Ruminal fluid in 5 goats from each breed and management group was obtained with an oro-ruminal probe at 2 h after feeding. Ruminal pH was measured at 24 h and at wk 1, 2, 3, and 4 and used as an indicator of feeding conditions on rumen environment. Time for bolus administration differed by bolus type (B1, 14 +/- 2 s; B2, 24 +/- 2 s; B3, 27 +/- 2 s; P < 0.05) and goat breed (Alpine, 34 +/- 3 s; Angora, 17 +/- 2 s; Boer-cross, 16 +/- 1 s; Spanish, 19 +/- 2 s; P < 0.05), although differences were due to greater times for B2 and B3 in Alpine goats. Time for bolus administration averaged 22 +/- 1 s, and overall time for bolusing, reading, and data typing was 49 +/- 1 s on average. Ruminal pH differed according to breed and feeding management (lactating Alpine, 6.50 +/- 0.07; yearling Alpine, 6.73 +/- 0.07; Angora, 6.34 +/- 0.06; Boer-cross, 6.62 +/- 0.04; Spanish, 6.32 +/- 0.08; P < 0.05), but no early bolus losses occurred; rumen pH did not differ according to bolus type (B1, 6.45 +/- 0.05; B2, 6.39 +/- 0.07; B3, 6.49 +/- 0.05; P > 0.05). At 6 mo, electronic boluses showed greater retention than ear tags (99.7 vs. 97.2%; P < 0.05). At 12 mo, bolus retention was 96.3, 100, and 97.8% for B1, B2, and B3, respectively, not differing between B1 and B3 (P = 0.562). No effect of breed and bolus type on bolus retention was detected. No goat losing, at the same time, both bolus and ear tag was observed. Ear tag retention (91.7%) was less (P < 0.05) than all types of bolus (98.1%) on average. Ear tag retention in Boer-cross (98.6%) and Alpine (96.9%) goats was greater (P < 0.05) than in Spanish (88.7%) and Angora (82.9%) and tended to differ (P = 0.095) between Spanish and Alpine. In conclusion, unlike flag-button visual ear tags and mini-boluses used here, properly designed boluses (e.g., standard bolus) met International Committee for Animal Recording and National Animal Identification System retention requirements for goat identification under US conditions and are recommended in practice.

The influence of the mother's health on her child.

Dr Stuart Carne discusses the influence of depressive illness in the mother in producing feeding difficulties with her child. He stresses the importance of considering this possibility and shows that treatment of the mother's condition results in resolution of the feeding difficulty. Dr Katharina Dalton demonstrates a correlation between repeated colds in children and premenstrual tension in the mother. Her figures show that coryzal episodes in the children occur at the time of the premenstruum in the mother. Dr Ronald Mac Keith emphasizes the importance of establishing empathy between mother and child as early as possible, and shows how the doctor can help in achieving this objective.

Sick absence certification. Analysis of one group practice in 1967.

Certificates of inability or fitness to work were issued on 6,161 occasions in one year in one group practice. Half the episodes of illness lasted for seven days or less, and two thirds of the episodes ended on a Sunday. Clearly in most cases the doctor does no more than countersign the patient's declaration of his fitness or not to work. Abolition of short-term medical certification would probably have little effect on absenteeism or the sums paid out as sick benefit.