The futures of pastoralism in the Horn of Africa: pathways of growth and change.

This paper reviews pastoralism in the Horn of Africa region with reference to the basic socio-economics of pastoralism, and the use of mobile livestock production to generate income and food for human consumption. The paper also examines long-term trends in pastoralist areas which, at first sight, appear to be contradictory. The first trend is the growth of a substantial domestic and export trade in livestock and meat across the region, driven largely by supplies from pastoralist areas and local and international demand. This trend indicates robust and responsive livestock production and marketing in pastoralist areas, despite recurrent drought, conflict and weak governance. In contrast, the second trend sees increasing levels of poverty and destitution in pastoralist areas, and continued high levels of human malnutrition. The co-existence of economic growth and increasing poverty in 'high-export' areas is explained by human population growth, drought, and the private control of pastures and water by wealthier producers. All of these factors combine to push poorer producers out of pastoralism. In areas with lower market orientation, other forms of declining land access are often evident, including the appropriation of land for mechanised farming, hydroelectric schemes, and bush encroachment. These changes, plus population growth and drought, also push people out of pastoralism. In all areas, pastoralism will continue to be the main economic activity but, at the same time, increasing numbers of people are seeking other livelihoods.

Cet article consacré au pastoralisme dans la Corne de l'Afrique au regard de ses principales caractéristiques socio-économiques décrit les utilisations du bétail nomade pour générer des revenus et produire des aliments destinés à la consommation humaine. Les auteurs analysent également les tendances à long terme des régions d'élevage pastoral, qui apparaissent à première vue comme étant contradictoires. La première tendance observée dans cette région a trait à la croissance d'un commerce important d'animaux et de viandes destiné aux marchés nationaux et d'exportation, sous l'impulsion conjointe de l'offre émanant des zones d'élevage pastoral et de la demande tant locale qu'internationale. Cette tendance démontre l'existence dans les zones d'élevage pastoral de capacités de production et commerciales robustes et adaptables, en dépit des épisodes récurrents de sécheresse, des conflits sociaux et d'une gouvernance déficiente. En revanche, la deuxième tendance révèle une aggravation croissante de la pauvreté et de la précarité dans les zones d'élevage pastoral, accompagnées d'une malnutrition importante et persistante dans les populations humaines. La coexistence d'une croissance économique et d'une plus grande pauvreté dans des zones à dominante exportatrice s'explique par la croissance démographique, par les sécheresses et par la mainmise des producteurs les plus riches sur les terres de pâture et sur l'eau. Ces facteurs cumulés détournent du pastoralisme les éleveurs les plus pauvres. Dans les régions à vocation exportatrice moins prononcée, le déclin de l'accès aux pâturages prend d'autres formes clairement identifiables, par exemple l'appropriation des terres en vue de leur exploitation mécanisée, la production d'énergie hydraulique ou l'extension de la brousse. Ces changements s'ajoutant à la croissance démographique et à la sécheresse rendent le pastoralisme beaucoup moins attractif pour les individus. Certes, le pastoralisme restera la principale activité économique des régions étudiées mais en même temps, de plus en plus de gens vont s'orienter vers d'autres moyens de subsistance.

Los autores pasan revista al pastoreo en la región del Cuerno de África, haciendo referencia a sus fundamentos socioeconómicos y a la producción de ganado móvil como medio de generar ingresos y alimentos para el consumo humano. Además, señalan la existencia de tendencias a largo plazo en las zonas de pastoreo que, a primera vista, parecen contradictorias. La primera es el auge de un comercio nacional o exportador de ganado y carne de considerables dimensiones en toda la región, impulsado básicamente por los suministros procedentes de las zonas de pastoreo y por la demanda local e internacional. Esta tendencia pone de manifiesto procesos robustos y flexibles de producción y comercialización de ganado en las zonas pastorales, pese a la recurrencia de sequías y conflictos y a la mala gestión de los asuntos públicos. La segunda tendencia, en acusado contraste, pone de manifiesto niveles crecientes de pobreza e indigencia en las zonas de pastoreo y niveles constantemente elevados de malnutrición humana. La concurrencia de crecimiento económico y pobreza en aumento en zonas eminentemente exportadoras se explica por el crecimiento de la población humana, las sequías y el control privado de los pastos y el agua que ejercen los ganaderos más pudientes. Todos estos factores se combinan para expulsar del pastoreo a los productores pobres. En zonas menos orientadas hacia el mercado aparecen a menudo otras causas de acceso decreciente a la tierra, como la apropiación de suelo para la producción agrícola mecanizada, la instalación de centrales hidroeléctricas o el avance de la maleza. Estos cambios, sumados al crecimiento demográfico y a la sequía, también inducen a las personas a dejar el pastoreo. Y aunque este seguirá siendo la principal actividad económica en todas las zonas, cada vez hay más gente que busca otras formas de ganarse la vida.

The socio-economic impact of important camel diseases as perceived by a pastoralist community in Kenya.

This paper presents the results of a study conducted in a pastoral community in Kenya using participatory appraisal approaches. The objective of the study was to assess the socio-economic impact of camel trypanosomosis (surra) according to the perceptions of the pastoralists. Four livestock grazing units were conveniently selected and in each of them, three groups of key informants comprising five to eight persons were selected for the participatory exercises. Five camel diseases were listed in order of importance according to their severity and frequency of occurrence including trypanosomosis, mange, non-specific diarrhoea, tick infestations and haemorrhagic septicaemia. The losses listed as incurred due to the five diseases were: losses in milk, meat, blood, fats and hides, dowry payments, and depreciation in sale of animals, losses due to infertility and abortions, and losses due to the cost of treatment. There was good agreement (P < 0.05) between the informant groups on the losses incurred as a result of the diseases for all the selected loss indicators. Surra and mange were given high median scores on all the indicators while non-specific diarrhoea, tick infestations, and haemorrhagic septicaemia received moderate median scores. Based on the study findings it is concluded that the camel plays a central role in the lives of Turkana pastoralists and that surra has a devastating social and economic impact. There is a need for veterinary and policy decision-makers to focus more attention on the control of surra in this arid and semi-arid area of Kenya.

Certification for regional and international trade in livestock commodities: the need to balance credibility and enterprise.

The current system for the certification of internationally traded animal commodities can act as a barrier to developing countries accessing high-value international markets. In this Viewpoint article, Gavin Thomson and colleagues discuss the situation as it stands and identify inconsistencies with respect to the certification process. They suggest ways to address the lack of capacity for credible certification in some developing countries that will encourage market access for livestock commodities. They emphasise the role of mechanisms other than demonstrating that an area of production is free from a range of animal diseases, arguing that this could be of significant benefit to developing regions and countries, but that a reliable and independent system of certification based on international standards is essential.

A model of lineage-1 and lineage-2 rinderpest virus transmission in pastoral areas of East Africa.

The development of a stochastic, state-transition model of rinderpest transmission dynamics is described using parameter estimates obtained from both laboratory and participatory research. Using serological data, the basic reproduction numbers for lineage-1 rinderpest virus in southern Sudan and for lineage-2 rinderpest virus in Somali livestock were estimated as 4.4 and between 1.2 and 1.9, respectively. The model predictions for the inter-epidemic period in Sudan and Somalia (1.2 and 4.2 years, respectively) were in agreement with analysis of livestock-owner reports (1-2 years and 5 years, respectively).

The use of community-based animal health workers to strengthen disease surveillance systems in Tanzania.

An 18 month trial was conducted in three districts of Arusha region, northern Tanzania, to assess the use of community-based animal health workers (CAHWs) in an official disease surveillance system. Disease reports provided by CAHWs were assessed using six indicators for effective disease surveillance, i.e. sensitivity, specificity, timeliness, representativeness, simplicity and acceptability. To assess sustainability issues and determine the incentives required by CAHWs to report disease, three different incentive models were tested in the trial. None of the incentive models involved direct payments to CAHWs. Before involving CAHWs in disease surveillance in the three trial districts, disease case reports as a proportion of cattle population were 0.13%, 0.20% and 0.12%. During the trial, disease case reports as a proportion of cattle population increased to 5.0%, 5.6% and 6.3%. The CAHWs also improved the spatial and temporal coverage of the disease surveillance system and provided timely reports. During the trial, national-level disease reporting in Tanzania increased by 17% owing to the sensitisation and support activities of the Pan African Programme for the Control of Epizootics in Tanzania. In Arusha region, disease reporting increased by 118%, and 49% of this improvement was attributable to increased reporting in the three trial districts. Reporting from these districts far exceeded that from any other district in Tanzania. Veterinarians confirmed the CAHWs' clinical diagnosis in 88% of the 170 clinical cases examined. The increase in disease reporting resulting from CAHW activities was sufficient to enable the national epidemiology unit to achieve its target in relation to World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) guidelines. The authors conclude that the use of CAHWs should be promoted in the national strategy for disease reporting. Additionally, CAHWs must be brought under the control of the Tanzanian veterinary authorities, a process that will include appropriate legislative reform.

Community participation and the delivery of veterinary services in Africa.

Community participation is now widely promoted as an important feature of aid projects in less-developed countries. However, definitions, uses and expectations of community participation vary considerably among professionals (including veterinarians). A lack of common understanding of community participation hinders the comparison of experiences between projects and can lead to false hopes regarding how community participation should be used and what it might deliver. This paper provides an overview of experiences with community participation in animal-health service development and research in Africa. By examining two types of community-based animal-health intervention, the paper also describes how community participation can vary in veterinary projects and relates this variation to project impact and sustainability. Projects that encourage types of community participation such as interactive participation and self-mobilisation are most likely to result in sustained benefits for livestock keepers.

Participatory analysis of seasonal incidences of diseases of cattle, disease vectors and rainfall in southern Sudan.

During an investigation into a chronic wasting disease in southern Sudanese cattle, a participatory appraisal method called a 'seasonal calendar' was used to understand local perceptions of seasonal variations in cattle diseases, disease vectors, intermediate hosts and rainfall. Repetition of a standardized seasonal calendar with Dinka informants demonstrated good reproducibility of the method. Comparison of rainfall data produced by seasonal calendars and objective measures of rainfall demonstrated good validity of the seasonal calendar method. Subjective assessment of seasonal calendar scoring patterns by veterinarians indicated that herders' perceptions of seasonal populations of biting flies, ticks and snails were similar to modern veterinary knowledge. The uses of seasonal calendars in veterinary epidemiology are discussed.

Participatory diagnosis of a heat-intolerance syndrome in cattle in Tanzania and association with foot-and-mouth disease.

A heat-intolerance (HI) syndrome in cattle in Tanzania was suspected to be associated with previous, clinical foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). A participatory appraisal (PA) method called "matrix scoring" was used to explore livestock-keeper perceptions of association between HI and cattle diseases. A PA method called 'proportional piling' was used to estimate herd incidence of FMD and other diseases, herd incidence of HI, and association between HI and other cattle diseases. Use of matrix scoring and proportional piling with pastoral Maasai informants demonstrated association between FMD and HI. With agropastoral Sukuma informants, the matrix-scoring method did not indicate an association between FMD and HI, whereas the proportional piling method indicated a weak association. Results were supported by calculation of positive predictive values for herder diagnosis of HI and FMD. Clinical examination of cattle by veterinarians was used to confirm HI cases and detection of antibody to non-structural proteins of FMD virus was used to confirm previous clinical FMD.

Participatory diagnosis of a chronic wasting disease in cattle in southern Sudan.

In southern Sudan, livestock keepers identified a chronic wasting disease in adult cattle as one of their most-serious animal-health problems. Participatory-appraisal (PA) methods and conventional veterinary-investigation methods were used to characterise the chronic wasting disease and identify linkages between indigenous knowledge and modern veterinary knowledge. The local characterisation of chronic wasting encompassed trypanosomosis, fasciolosis, parasitic gastroenteritis and schistosomosis (as both single and mixed infections).A standardised PA method called matrix scoring had good reproducibility when investigating local perceptions of disease-signs and disease causes. Comparison of matrix-scoring results showed much overlap with modern veterinary descriptions of cattle diseases and the results of conventional veterinary investigation. Applications of PA methods in remote areas with very limited veterinary infrastructure are discussed. The validation of data derived from PA is discussed by reference to the low sensitivity of 'field-friendly' diagnostic tests for important cattle diseases.

The use of participatory appraisal by veterinarians in Africa.

The term 'participatory appraisal' refers to a range of methods for data collection, learning and facilitation, which enable local people to play an active role in defining, analysing and solving their problems. A questionnaire survey was used to obtain information on the use of participatory appraisal (PA) from veterinarians working in Africa. A low overall response rate of 28.6% was achieved. Within Africa, response rates varied from 15.6% from government veterinarians to 47.6% from veterinarians working with non-governmental organisations. Information is presented on preferred methods, specific uses, levels of training and perceived advantages and disadvantages of PA. While PA was considered by many informants to be a valuable approach to working with communities to analyse and solve local animal health problems, respondents also identified constraints to the wider use of PA. These constraints included lack of financial resources, low availability of relevant training courses and materials, lack of time to attend training courses, and negative attitudes among colleagues. The author concludes that greater institutional awareness of the role of PA in the development of Veterinary Services is required. Such awareness might be achieved by wider dissemination of experiences related to the use of PA and the development of veterinary-orientated training courses for centrally-based personnel and workers in the field. The latter should include attention to appropriate attitudes and behaviour for veterinary professionals who are attempting to develop services according to the priorities and capacity of the community.

Para-veterinary professionals and the development of quality, self-sustaining community-based services.

Livestock are a major asset for rural households throughout the developing world and are increasingly regarded as a means of reducing poverty. However, many rural areas are characterised by limited or no accessibility to veterinary services. Economic theory indicates that primary level services can be provided by para-veterinary professionals working as private operators and as an outreach component of veterinary clinics and pharmacies in small urban centres. Experience from the development of community-based animal health worker (CAHW) systems indicates that these workers can have a substantial impact on livestock morbidity and mortality through the treatment or prevention of a limited range of animal health problems. Factors for success include community involvement in the design and implementation of these systems, and involvement of the private sector to supply and supervise CAHWs. Examples of privatised and veterinary supervised CAHW networks are cited to show the considerable potential of this simple model to improve primary animal health services in marginalised areas. An analysis of constraints indicates that inappropriate policies and legislation are a major concern. By referring to the section on the evaluation of Veterinary Services in the OIE (World organisation for animal health) Terrestrial Animal Health Code, the paper proposes guidelines to assist governments in improving the regulation, quality, and co-ordination of privatised, veterinary supervised CAHW systems.

Haematology of clinically normal and sick captive reindeer (Rangifer tarandus).

A retrospective analysis of haematological values from clinically normal captive reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) showed that the red cell count, haemoglobin level, packed cell volume and lymphocyte count were higher and the erythrocyte sedimentation rate and eosinophil count were lower in juveniles than in adults. Newborn animals were anaemic compared with juveniles and adults and had high reticulocyte counts. The values from healthy reindeer were used to identify abnormal haematological variations in a number of sick animals. It was shown that reindeer exhibit similar haemopathological responses to those of other artiodactyla, with increases in the erythrocyte sedimentation rate and fibrinogen level being of particular diagnostic significance. Eosinophilia was the only abnormal haematological finding in individuals with subclinical infections of intestinal parasites.

International trade in livestock and livestock products: the need for a commodity-based approach.

International animal health standards designed to facilitate safe trade in livestock and livestock products are set by the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) under the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and documented in the OIE's Terrestrial Animal Health Code. A core principle of the Code is the need for countries to eradicate important transboundary animal diseases (TADs) to reduce the risk of exporting disease to trading partners. International food safety standards are set by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, administered jointly by the World Health Organization and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The goal of global eradication of most TADs is unachievable for the foreseeable future, other than in the case of rinderpest, and this prevents many countries, especially developing nations, from engaging in international trade under WTO rules. This paper proposes an alternative, commodity-based approach to the formulation of international animal health and food safety standards, based on the fact that different commodities pose very different risks when it comes to the spread of human and animal pathogens. Therefore, the risk mitigation strategies required are equally commodity-dependent. The authors conclude that more focused commodity standards would improve access to international markets for all countries, especially those in the developing world. For this objective to be realised, credible and independent certification is required.

Foot and mouth disease in the Borana pastoral system, southern Ethiopia and implications for livelihoods and international trade.

Participatory epidemiology (PE) was used on the Borana plateau of southern Ethiopia to understand pastoralist's perceptions of the clinical and epidemiological features of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in cattle. Matrix scoring showed good agreement between informant groups on the clinical signs of acute and chronic FMD, and findings were cross-checked by clinical examination of cattle and assessment of previous clinical FMD at herd level by detection of antibody to non structural proteins of FMD virus. The positive predictive value of pastoralist's diagnosis of FMD at herd level was 93.1%. The annual age-specific incidence and mortality of acute FMD in 50 herds was estimated using proportional piling. The estimated mean incidence of acute FMD varied from in 18.5% in cattle less than two years of age to 14.0% in cattle three to four years of age. The estimated mean mortality due to acute FMD varied from 2.8% in cattle less than two years of age to 0.3% in cattle three of age or older. Pearson correlation coefficients for acute FMD by age group were -0.12 (p>0.05) for incidence and -0.59 (p<0.001) for mortality. Estimates of the annual incidence of chronic FMD varied from 0.2% in cattle less than two years of age to 1.8% in cattle three to four years of age. The Pearson correlation coefficient for the incidence of chronic FMD by age group was 0.47 (p<0.001). Outbreaks of FMD peaked in Borana cattle during the two dry seasons and were attributed to increased cattle movement to dry season grazing areas. The mean seroprevalence of FMD was estimated at 21% (n=920) and 55.2% of herds (n=116) tested seropositive. Serotyping of 120 seropositive samples indicated serotypes O (99.2%), A (95.8%), SAT 2 (80%) and C (67.5%). The endemic nature of FMD in Borana pastoral herds is discussed in terms of the direct household-level impact of the disease, and the increasing export of cattle and chilled beef from Ethiopia.

Foot-and-mouth disease vaccination in South Sudan: benefit-cost analysis and livelihoods impact.

A benefit-cost analysis of vaccination for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) was conducted in an area of South Sudan, which due to chronic conflict, had been subject to large-scale humanitarian assistance for many years. The study used participatory epidemiology (PE) methods to estimate the prevalence and mortality of acute and chronic FMD in different age groups of cattle, and the reduction in milk off-take in cows affected by FMD. The benefit-cost of FMD vaccination was 11.5. Losses due to the chronic form of FMD accounted for 28.2% of total FMD losses, indicating that future benefit-cost analyses for FMD control in pastoral and agropastoral areas of Africa need to consider losses caused by chronic disease. Participatory epidemiological methods were also used to assess the importance of milk in the diet of Nuer agropastoralists, and seasonal variations in diet in relation to cattle movements and FMD outbreaks. Marked seasonal variation in diet included a 'hunger gap' period during which households were highly dependent on milk as their main source of food. Outbreaks of FMD occurred immediately before this period of milk dependency, with chronic losses extending through this period and affecting human food security. The paper discusses the need and feasibility of mass vaccination and strategic vaccination for FMD in South Sudan. The paper also discusses the value of combining conventional benefit-cost analysis with livelihoods analysis to inform disease control efforts and funding commitments in humanitarian contexts.

Use of participatory epidemiology to compare the clinical veterinary knowledge of pastoralists and veterinarians in East Africa.

Because of severe resource and logistical constraints in large areas of Africa, disease surveillance systems need to maximize the use of information provided by livestock keepers and make correct interpretations of indigenous livestock knowledge. This paper describes the use of participatory epidemiology (PE) to compare the names, clinical signs and epidemiological features of cattle diseases as perceived by pastoralists and veterinarians. Using results from two previous studies with pastoralists in southern Sudan and Kenya, provisional translations of local disease names into modem veterinary terminology were used to develop a matrix scoring method for use with veterinarians. Matrix scoring data from pastoralists and veterinarians were then compared using simple visual comparison of summarized matrices, hierarchical cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling. The results showed good agreement between pastoralists' and veterinarians' disease names and diagnostic criteria. The matrix scoring method was easy to use and appropriate for use in under-resourced areas with minimal professional support or laboratory services. Matrix scoring could be used to assist livestock disease surveillance workers to design surveillance systems that make better use of pastoralist's indigenous knowledge and correctly interpret local disease names. The method should be combined with conventional veterinary investigation methods where feasible.

Impact assessment of a community-based animal health project in Dollo Ado and Dollo Bay districts, southern Ethiopia.

Participatory methods were used to assess the impact of a community-based animal health worker (CAHW) project in two remote pastoralist districts of Ethiopia. The CAHW project had been operating for 3 years at the time of the assessment. Participatory methods were standardized and repeated with 10 groups of informants in the project area. The assessment showed significant reductions in disease impact for diseases handled by CAHWs compared with diseases not handled by CAHWs. In camels, there was significant reduction (p < 0.001) in the impact of mange, trypanosomosis, helminthosis, anthrax and non-specific respiratory disease. In cattle there was a signficant reduction (p < 0.001) in the impact of blackleg, anthrax and helminthosis. In sheep and goats there was a sign reduction (p < 0.001) in the impact of mange, helminthosis, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, orf and non-specific diarrhoea. In order of importance, these reductions in disease impact were attributed to (1) increased use of modern veterinary services provided by CAHWs, (2) vaccination campaigns involving CAHWs, (3) good rainfall and availability of grazing and (4) decreased herd mobility. Decreased herd mobility was also associated with negative impact of tick infestation. Community-based animal health workers were considered to be highly accessible, available, affordable and trustworthy relative to other service providers. They were also perceived to be suppliers of a good quality service. Specific types of positive impact attributed to CAHW activities were increases in milk, meat, income and draught power.

Community perceptions of important camel diseases in Lapur Division of Turkana District, Kenya.

This paper presents the results of a study conducted in Lapur Division of Turkana District, Kenya, to estimate the incidence and mortality of camel trypanosomosis using participatory methods. Four livestock camps ('adakars') were conveniently selected for the study. Four informant groups comprising 6 8 key persons were used for the participatory exercises. The camel diseases identified by the pastoralists in their order of importance according to annual incidence were: trypanosomosis (11.4%); mange (10.8%); tick infestation (7.9%); haemorrhagic septicaemia (7.7%); and non-specific diarrhoea (7.6%). Almost half (49.3%) of the camel population suffered from at least one disease over the previous year. The annual incidence and mortality rates of trypanosomosis were estimated at 15%, and 9.9%, in adult camels and 6.9% and 5.2%, in young camels, respectively. There was a seasonal occurrence of trypanosomosis, with most cases reported in the dry season. The prevalence levels of the disease reportedly declined from about 100%, in 1978 to an almost stable state of about 15% in 2002. This study revealed that camel trypanosomosis is still an important disease in Turkana District, exacting a heavy toll in terms of morbidity and mortality. The economic losses due to the disease were likely to have been great owing to the central role the camel plays in this arid district of Kenya.

Use of participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools for investigating tick ecology and tick-borne disease in Somaliland.

This paper describes the use of the participatory rural appraisal tools matrix scoring and seasonal calendars to collect data on tick ecology and tick-associated health problems of livestock in Sanaag region of Somaliland. The potential application of these techniques is discussed.