EAU-ESMO consensus statements on the management of advanced and variant bladder cancer-an international collaborative multi-stakeholder effort: under the auspices of the EAU and ESMO Guidelines Committees†.

BACKGROUND: Although guidelines exist for advanced and variant bladder cancer management, evidence is limited/conflicting in some areas and the optimal approach remains controversial. OBJECTIVE: To bring together a large multidisciplinary group of experts to develop consensus statements on controversial topics in bladder cancer management. DESIGN: A steering committee compiled proposed statements regarding advanced and variant bladder cancer management which were assessed by 113 experts in a Delphi survey. Statements not reaching consensus were reviewed; those prioritised were revised by a panel of 45 experts before voting during a consensus conference. SETTING: Online Delphi survey and consensus conference. PARTICIPANTS: The European Association of Urology (EAU), the European Society for Medical Oncology (ESMO), experts in bladder cancer management. OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Statements were ranked by experts according to their level of agreement: 1-3 (disagree), 4-6 (equivocal), 7-9 (agree). A priori (level 1) consensus was defined as ≥70% agreement and ≤15% disagreement, or vice versa. In the Delphi survey, a second analysis was restricted to stakeholder group(s) considered to have adequate expertise relating to each statement (to achieve level 2 consensus). RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS: Overall, 116 statements were included in the Delphi survey. Of these, 33 (28%) statements achieved level 1 consensus and 49 (42%) statements achieved level 1 or 2 consensus. At the consensus conference, 22 of 27 (81%) statements achieved consensus. These consensus statements provide further guidance across a broad range of topics, including the management of variant histologies, the role/limitations of prognostic biomarkers in clinical decision making, bladder preservation strategies, modern radiotherapy techniques, the management of oligometastatic disease and the evolving role of checkpoint inhibitor therapy in metastatic disease. CONCLUSIONS: These consensus statements provide further guidance on controversial topics in advanced and variant bladder cancer management until a time where further evidence is available to guide our approach.

Dynamic contrast-enhanced imaging has limited added value over T2-weighted imaging and diffusion-weighted imaging when using PI-RADSv2 for diagnosis of clinically significant prostate cancer in patients with elevated PSA.

AIM: To determine the added value of dynamic contrast-enhanced imaging (DCE) over T2-weighted imaging (T2-WI) and diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) for detection of clinically significant prostate cancer (csPC) in patients with elevated prostate-specific antigen (PSA). METHODS AND MATERIALS: Two hundred and forty-five patients with elevated PSA underwent multiparametric (mp) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the prostate before biopsy. mpMRI was performed using a 3 T MRI system without an endorectal coil. Patients underwent transrectal ultrasound-guided systematic 12 core biopsy followed by radical prostatectomy (n=68), radiation therapy (n=91), or clinical follow-up for at least 2 years (n=86). csPC was defined as Gleason score ≥3+4 and/or tumour volume of ≥0.5 ml, and/or tumour stage ≥T3a. The MRI findings were scored according to the Prostate Imaging Reporting and Data System version 2 (PI-RADSv2) and an alternative overall assessment category (PI-RADSv2Alt) based on only T2-WI and DWI. RESULTS: In 144 patients (58.8%), csPC was found within 2 years after MRI. With scoring according to the PI-RADSv2 guidelines, DCE was not needed for determination of the overall assessment category in 80.8% (198/245) of patients. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis showed an area under the curve of 0.79 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.74-0.85) for PI-RADSv2 and 0.79 (95% CI: 0.73-0.85) for PI-RADSv2Alt. CONCLUSION: The added value of DCE over T2-WI and DWI is limited when using PI-RADSv2 for diagnosis of csPC in patients with elevated PSA before biopsy. An alternative overall assessment score using only T2-WI and DWI yielded similar performance to PI-RADSv2.

Imaging treated prostate cancer.

In patients with a clinical suspicion of recurrence after treatment for prostate cancer, imaging can be used to distinguish between local recurrence and metastatic disease. Multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging (mpMRI) of the prostate may be a valuable imaging modality for the detection and localization of local recurrence in patients treated for prostate cancer. In mpMRI, morphological T2-weighted images are combined with functional MRI techniques including diffusion-weighted imaging, dynamic contrast-enhanced imaging, and magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging to improve accuracy. In this paper, the current status of imaging techniques used to detect and to localize tumor recurrence in patients treated for prostate cancer will be reviewed, with emphasis on mpMRI for local prostate cancer recurrence.

Lymphangioleiomyomatosis Presenting with Perirenal Hemorrhage.

Lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) is a rare debilitating disease of unknown etiology, classically described as almost exclusively affecting women of childbearing age. The disease most commonly involves the lungs and is characterized by hamartomatous smooth muscle cell proliferations along blood vessels, airways and lymphatics. Most patients present with pulmonary symptoms, including shortness of breath, recurrent pneumothorax and pleural effusions. Extrapulmonary manifestations of LAM as the initial presentation of the disease are highly unusual. We present the case of a patient in whom LAM was incidentally discovered when the patient presented with retroperitoneal hemorrhage from a ruptured renal angiomyolipoma.

PNET/Ewing's sarcoma of the kidney: imaging findings in two cases.

The CT-imaging findings of primary renal PNET/Ewing's sarcoma in two patients were retrospectively assessed. A large renal mass with heterogenous contrast enhancement and necrotic and hemorrhagic areas were the predominant characteristics. In adolescents or young adults presenting with a large renal mass, PNET/Ewing's sarcoma may be included in the differential diagnosis.

Light emission from dye-doped cholesteric liquid crystals at oblique angles: Simulation and experiment.

Dye-doped cholesteric liquid crystals with a helical pitch of the order of a wavelength have a strong effect on the fluorescence properties of dye molecules. This is a promising system for realizing tunable lasers at low cost. We apply a plane wave model to simulate the spontaneous emission from a layer of cholesteric liquid crystal. We simulate the spectral and angle dependence and the polarization of the emitted light as a function of the order parameter of the dye in the liquid crystal. Measurements of the angle dependent emission spectra and polarization are in good agreement with the simulations.

Screening and early diagnosis of prostate cancer: an update.

Screening for prostate cancer has become a main controversial topic. First the currently used screening tools, PSA (Prostate Specific Antigen) and DRE (Digital Rectal Examination) have a low accuracy in the prediction of prostate cancer. Second, the benefit of screening in reducing the prostate cancer related mortality was not uniformly shown in older screening studies and there was concern about the risk of overdiagnosis and over-treatment of insignificant prostate cancers. Very recently, 3 major prospective, randomized screening studies have been published. This paper aims to provide an overview how the performance of the current screening tools can be ameliorated and evaluates the recently published screening studies with practical considerations for future screening protocols.

Complications of bone tumors after multimodal therapy.

PURPOSE: To define and compare the complications of bone tumors after resection, extracorporeal irradiation and re-implantation, with or without radiotherapy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Eighty patients (40 males and 40 females, ages 4-77 years) with 61 malignant and 19 benign bone tumors were evaluated for local and distant complications after treatment. Two groups of patients were studied: (1) 53 patients had resection without (43 patients) or with external beam radiotherapy (RadRx) (10 patients) and (2) 27 patients underwent extracorporeal irradiation and re-implantation without (22 patients) or with RadRx (5 patients). Patient follow-up varied from 1 month to 13.63 years with mean follow-up of 4.7 years. Imaging studies included bone and chest radiography, spin echo T1- and T2-weighted (or STIR) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI), computed tomography (CT) for thoracic and abdominopelvic metastases and 3-phase technetium-99m-labeled-methylene-diphosphonate (Tc99m MDP) scintigraphy for bone metastases. RESULTS: DCE-MRI differentiated the rapidly enhancing recurrences, residual tumors and metastases from the slowly enhancing inflammation, and the non-enhancing seromas and fibrosis. Recurrences, metastases (mainly to lung and bone), and seromas were greater than twice as frequent in patients after resection than after ECCRI. Although 11.3% of post-resection patients had residual tumor, no ECRRI-treated patient had residual tumor. In contrast, after ECRRI, infection was almost three times as frequent and aseptic loosening twice as frequent as compared with the post-resection patients. Bones treated with RadRx and/or ECRRI showed increased prevalence of fractures and osteoporosis. In addition, muscle inflammation was more common in the externally irradiated patient as compared with the patient who did not receive this therapy. However, another soft tissue complication, heterotopic ossification, was rare in the patient after RadRx, but 25.6% of patients after resection and 40.9% after ECRRI showed heterotopic ossification. Unusual complications after resection or ECRRI involved adjacent nerves with partial denervation, amputation neuroma, or entrapment (secondary to recurrence or fibrosis) after resection or ECRRI with or without RadRx. One patient developed a posterior tibial artery pseudoaneurysm after ECRRI. CONCLUSIONS: Follow-up of patients with benign and malignant bone tumors demonstrated the efficacy of DCE-MRI for distinguishing rapidly enhancing viable tumor from the slowly enhancing or non-enhancing benign processes after different therapies. Although recurrences, residual tumors, metastases and seromas were more common after resection, fractures, osteoporosis, infection, and muscular atrophy predominated in the ECRRI-treated patient. RadRx further predisposed post-resection and post-ECRRI patients to develop fractures, osteoporosis and infection and was the major cause of persistent muscle inflammation at MRI. Because complications can evolve and resolve years after treatment, the patients with bone tumors, particularly sarcomas, must receive life-time multimodal imaging for maximal diagnosis and treatment.

Clinical and imaging tools in the early diagnosis of prostate cancer, a review.

Measurement of serum Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) level is useful to detect early prostate cancer. PSA-screening may reduce the mortality rate from prostate cancer, but this is associated with a high rate of overdiagnosis and overtreatment. To improve the detection of clinically significant cancers, several auxiliary clinical and imaging tools can be used. The absolute PSA value can be complemented with parameters such as PSA velocity, PSA density and free/total PSA. Transrectal Ultrasound (TRUS) has only moderate accuracy in the detection of prostate carcinoma, but is very useful in the estimation of prostate volume and thus calculation of PSA-density. The role of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in diagnosis and staging of prostate carcinoma is rapidly increasing. Morphologic T2-weighted MR images (T2-WI), preferably with an endorectal coil, depict the prostatic anatomy with high resolution and can detect tumoral areas within the peripheral zone of the prostate. Addition of MR spectroscopic imaging (MRSI), dynamic contrast enhanced MRI (DCE-MRI) and/or diffusion weighted imaging (DWI) further increase the diagnostic performance of MRI. The gold standard for diagnosis of prostate carcinoma is histological assessment obtained by transrectal ultrasound-guided systematic core needle biopsy. In the future, imaging-based targeted biopsies may improve the biopsy yield and decrease the number of biopsy cores. Computed Tomography (CT) and positron emission tomography (PET) have no value in early prostate cancer detection and the indications are limited to lymph node staging and detection of distant metastases.

Magnetic resonance imaging in diagnosis, staging and radiotherapy planning for prostate cancer.

T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), preferably using an endorectal coil, is able to clearly depict the normal prostatic anatomy and to identify prostate cancer with fair diagnostic accuracy. The latter can be further increased by using functional techniques such as spectroscopy (assessment of prostatic metabolism), dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI (assessment of angiogenesis) and diffusion-weighted imaging (assessment of cellular density). T2-weighted MRI is an important tool for local staging of prostate cancer in patients clinically staged as cT1 or cT2, because of its high specificity for macroscopic capsular extension or seminal vesicle invasion. Compared to CT-imaging, MRI depicts the internal prostatic anatomy, prostatic margins and the extent of prostatic tumours much more clearly. This benefit can be exploited to improve the accuracy of target delineations in radiotherapy planning.

Post-treatment complications of soft tissue tumours.

PURPOSE: To identify local and distant complications of patients with soft tissue tumours and evaluate their relationships to types of therapy. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Fifty-one patients (29 males and 22 females, ages 14-80 years) with 34 malignant and 17 benign soft tissue tumours were evaluated for local and distant complications after resection or amputation only (26 patients) or after the addition of radiotherapy (25 patients: 17 patients had external beam therapy, 7 patients had external beam therapy and brachytherapy, and one patient had extracorporeal irradiation and reimplantation). Duration of follow-up averaged 3.75 years for malignant tumours and 2.79 years for benign tumours. Follow-up studies included radiography, T1- and T2-weighted magnetic resonance (MR) imaging, dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI), computed tomography for thoracic and abdominal metastases, and 3-phase technetium-99m-labeled-methylene-diphosphonate scintigraphy for bone metastases. RESULTS: Recurrent tumours were 2.2 times more frequent in patients who had undergone their initial resection at an outside hospital as compared with those first treated at the university hospital. Nine of 11 recurrences occurred after marginal surgery. Metastases from soft tissue sarcomas, most commonly to lung (nine patients) and to bone and muscle (five patients), showed no specific relationship to type of therapy. DCE-MRI differentiated rapidly enhancing soft tissue recurrences (11 patients) and residual tumours (6 patients) from slowly enhancing muscle inflammation, and non-enhancing fibrosis and seromas that usually did not enhance. Seromas developed in 76% of patients who had postoperative radiation therapy and in 7.7% of patients who had only surgery. Subcutaneous and cutaneous oedema and muscle inflammation was at least four times more frequent after adjunct radiotherapy than after resection alone. Irrespective of the type of treatment, inflammatory changes in muscle and subcutaneous and cutaneous tissue and the majority of seromas were evident at the first follow-up study. Although seromas after resection and external beam therapy resolved with time, seromas after additional brachytherapy persisted. Inflammatory changes in muscle and cutaneous and subcutaneous tissue after resection alone disappeared by the second follow-up study, whereas these changes after radiotherapy resolved months to years after treatment. Fourteen of 51 patients showed MR findings of chronic muscular atrophy, predominantly located in the lower extremity. Heterotopic ossification was seen in three patients after resection and amputation without radiotherapy. Except for one patient with aggressive fibromatosis, bone and nerve complications occurred in patients with soft tissue malignancy. Twelve patients had osteoporosis. Six patients sustained fractures in irradiated osteoporotic bone of the lower extremity, and one patient had a vertebral fracture in radiographically normal but irradiated bone. In addition, one patient was found to have a medullary infarct in an irradiated femur. In nerve entrapment, DCE-MRI demonstrated the rapidly enhancing recurrent tumour or non-enhancing fibrosis surrounding the slowly enhancing nerve. T1- and T2-weighted MR images displayed the acute and chronic sequelae of nerve entrapment and nerve transection with denervation as T2-hyperintense acute muscle atrophy or T1-hypertense chronic fatty muscular atrophy with decrease in muscle volume. CONCLUSION: This study suggests a possible relationship between types of treatment of soft tissue tumours and subsequent complications. Postoperative radiotherapy was associated with a significant number of patients with seromas, muscle, cutaneous and subcutaneous inflammation, and fractures. Incomplete or difficult surgery resulted in residual or recurrent tumours and heterotopic ossification. Muscle atrophy and nerve entrapment were related to both treatments (resection alone or radiotherapy after resection). Diligent follow-up of patients with soft tissue tumours with recognition of these complications and their differentiation from recurrent or residual tumour can help guide clinical care and may negate the need for surgery when benign disease is defined.