Addition of galactose-1-phosphate measurement enhances newborn screening for classical galactosemia.

Galactosemia is an inborn disorder of carbohydrate metabolism of which early detection can prevent severe illness. Although the assay for galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALT) enzyme activity has been available since the 1960s, many issues prevented it from becoming universal. In order to develop the Israeli newborn screening pilot algorithm for galactosemia, flow injection analysis tandem mass spectrometry measurement of galactose-1-phosphate in archived dried blood spots from newborns with classical galactosemia, galactosemia variants, epimerase deficiency, and normal controls, was conducted. Out of 431 330 newborns screened during the pilot study (30 months), two with classical galactosemia and four with epimerase deficiency were identified and confirmed. Five false positives and no false negatives were recorded. Following this pilot study, the Israeli final and routine newborn screening algorithm, as recommended by the Advisory Committee to the National Newborn Screening Program, now consists of galactose-1-phosphate measurement integrated into the routine tandem mass spectrometry panel as the first-tier screening test, and GALT enzyme activity as the second-tier performed to identify only newborns suspected to be at risk for classical galactosemia. The GALT enzyme activity cut-off used in the final algorithm was lowered in order to avoid false positives.

The role of orotic acid measurement in routine newborn screening for urea cycle disorders.

Urea cycle disorders (UCDs), including OTC deficiency (OTCD), are life-threatening diseases with a broad clinical spectrum. Early diagnosis and initiation of treatment based on a newborn screening (NBS) test for OTCD with high specificity and sensitivity may contribute to reduction of the significant complications and high mortality. The efficacy of incorporating orotic acid determination into routine NBS was evaluated. Combined measurement of orotic acid and citrulline in archived dried blood spots from newborns with urea cycle disorders and normal controls was used to develop an algorithm for routine NBS for OTCD in Israel. Clinical information and genetic confirmation results were obtained from the follow-up care providers. About 1147986 newborns underwent routine NBS including orotic acid determination, 25 of whom were ultimately diagnosed with a UCD. Of 11 newborns with OTCD, orotate was elevated in seven but normal in two males with early-onset and two males with late-onset disease. Orotate was also elevated in archived dried blood spots of all seven retrospectively tested historical OTCD patients, only three of whom had originally been identified by NBS with low citrulline and elevated glutamine. Among the other UCDs emerge, three CPS1D cases and additional three retrospective CPS1D cases otherwise reported as a very rare condition. Combined levels of orotic acid and citrulline in routine NBS can enhance the detection of UCD, especially increasing the screening sensitivity for OTCD and differentiate it from CPS1D. Our data and the negligible extra cost for orotic acid determination might contribute to the discussion on screening for proximal UCDs in routine NBS.

COG6-CDG: Expanding the phenotype with emphasis on glycosylation defects involved in the causation of male disorders of sex development.

COG6-congenital disorder of glycosylation (COG6-CDG) is caused by biallelic mutations in COG6. To-date, 12 variants causing COG6-CDG in less than 20 patients have been reported. Using whole exome sequencing we identified two siblings with a novel homozygous deletion of 26 bp in COG6, creating a splicing variant (c.518_540 + 3del) and a shift in the reading frame. The phenotype of COG6-CDG includes growth and developmental retardation, microcephaly, liver and gastrointestinal disease, hypohydrosis and recurrent infections. We report two patients with novel phenotypic features including bowel malrotation and ambiguous genitalia, directing attention to the role of glycoprotein metabolism in the causation of disorders of sex development (DSD). Searching the glycomic literature, we identified 14 CDGs including males with DSD, a feature not previously accentuated. This study broadens the genetic and phenotypic spectrum of COG6-CDG and calls for increasing awareness to the central role of glycosylation processes in development of human sex and genitalia.

Nuclear Compartmentalization of Serine Racemase Regulates D-Serine Production: IMPLICATIONS FOR N-METHYL-D-ASPARTATE (NMDA) RECEPTOR ACTIVATION.

D-Serine is a physiological co-agonist that activates N-methyl D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) and is essential for neurotransmission, synaptic plasticity, and behavior. D-Serine may also trigger NMDAR-mediated neurotoxicity, and its dysregulation may play a role in neurodegeneration. D-Serine is synthesized by the enzyme serine racemase (SR), which directly converts L-serine to D-serine. However, many aspects concerning the regulation of D-serine production under physiological and pathological conditions remain to be elucidated. Here, we investigate possible mechanisms regulating the synthesis of D-serine by SR in paradigms relevant to neurotoxicity. We report that SR undergoes nucleocytoplasmic shuttling and that this process is dysregulated by several insults leading to neuronal death, typically by apoptotic stimuli. Cell death induction promotes nuclear accumulation of SR, in parallel with the nuclear translocation of GAPDH and Siah proteins at an early stage of the cell death process. Mutations in putative SR nuclear export signals (NESs) elicit SR nuclear accumulation and its depletion from the cytosol. Following apoptotic insult, SR associates with nuclear GAPDH along with other nuclear components, and this is accompanied by complete inactivation of the enzyme. As a result, extracellular D-serine concentration is reduced, even though extracellular glutamate concentration increases severalfold. Our observations imply that nuclear translocation of SR provides a fail-safe mechanism to prevent or limit secondary NMDAR-mediated toxicity in nearby synapses.

Role of phosphorylation of Cdc20 in p31(comet)-stimulated disassembly of the mitotic checkpoint complex.

The mitotic checkpoint system delays anaphase until all chromosomes are correctly attached to the mitotic spindle. When the checkpoint is turned on, it promotes the formation of the mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC), which inhibits the ubiquitin ligase anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C). MCC is composed of the checkpoint proteins BubR1, Bub3, and Mad2 bound to the APC/C activator Cdc20. When the checkpoint is satisfied, MCC is disassembled and APC/C becomes active. Previous studies have shown that the Mad2-binding protein p31(comet) promotes the dissociation of Cdc20 from BubR1 in MCC in a process that requires ATP. We now show that a part of MCC dissociation is blocked by inhibitors of cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) and that purified Cdk1-cyclin B stimulates this process. The mutation of all eight potential Cdk phosphorylation sites of Cdc20 partially prevented its release from BubR1. Furthermore, p31(comet) stimulated Cdk-catalyzed phosphorylation of Cdc20 in MCC. It is suggested that the binding of p31(comet) to Mad2 in MCC may trigger a conformational change in Cdc20 that facilitates its phosphorylation by Cdk, and that the latter process may promote its dissociation from BubR1.

p31comet Promotes disassembly of the mitotic checkpoint complex in an ATP-dependent process.

Accurate segregation of chromosomes in mitosis is ensured by a surveillance mechanism called the mitotic (or spindle assembly) checkpoint. It prevents sister chromatid separation until all chromosomes are correctly attached to the mitotic spindle through their kinetochores. The checkpoint acts by inhibiting the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), a ubiquitin ligase that targets for degradation securin, an inhibitor of anaphase initiation. The activity of APC/C is inhibited by a mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC), composed of the APC/C activator Cdc20 bound to the checkpoint proteins MAD2, BubR1, and Bub3. When all kinetochores acquire bipolar attachment the checkpoint is inactivated, but the mechanisms of checkpoint inactivation are not understood. We have previously observed that hydrolyzable ATP is required for exit from checkpoint-arrested state. In this investigation we examined the possibility that ATP hydrolysis in exit from checkpoint is linked to the action of the Mad2-binding protein p31(comet) in this process. It is known that p31(comet) prevents the formation of a Mad2 dimer that it thought to be important for turning on the mitotic checkpoint. This explains how p31(comet) blocks the activation of the checkpoint but not how it promotes its inactivation. Using extracts from checkpoint-arrested cells and MCC isolated from such extracts, we now show that p31(comet) causes the disassembly of MCC and that this process requires ß,γ-hydrolyzable ATP. Although p31(comet) binds to Mad2, it promotes the dissociation of Cdc20 from BubR1 in MCC.

Hereditary orotic aciduria identified by newborn screening.

Introduction: Hereditary orotic aciduria is an extremely rare, autosomal recessive disease caused by deficiency of uridine monophosphate synthase. Untreated, affected individuals may develop refractory megaloblastic anemia, neurodevelopmental disabilities, and crystalluria. Newborn screening has the potential to identify and enable treatment of affected individuals before they become significantly ill. Methods: Measuring orotic acid as part of expanded newborn screening using flow injection analysis tandem mass spectrometry. Results: Since the addition of orotic acid measurement to the Israeli routine newborn screening program, 1,492,439 neonates have been screened. The screen has identified ten Muslim Arab newborns that remain asymptomatic so far, with DBS orotic acid elevated up to 10 times the upper reference limit. Urine organic acid testing confirmed the presence of orotic aciduria along with homozygous variations in the UMPS gene. Conclusion: Newborn screening measuring of orotic acid, now integrated into the routine tandem mass spectrometry panel, is capable of identifying neonates with hereditary orotic aciduria.

Feedback inactivation of D-serine synthesis by NMDA receptor-elicited translocation of serine racemase to the membrane.

D-serine is a physiological coagonist of N-methyl D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) that plays a major role in several NMDAR-dependent events. In this study we investigate mechanisms regulating D-serine production by the enzyme serine racemase (SR). We now report that NMDAR activation promotes translocation of SR to the plasma membrane, which dramatically reduces the enzyme activity. Membrane-bound SR isolated from rat brain is not extracted from the membrane by high detergent and salt concentration, indicating a strong association. Colocalization studies indicate that most membrane-bound SR is located at the plasma membrane and dendrites, with much less SR observed in other types of membrane. NMDAR activation promotes translocation of the cytosolic SR to the membrane, resulting in reduced D-serine synthesis, and this effect is averted by blockade of NMDARs. In primary neuronal cultures, SR translocation to the membrane is blocked by a palmitoylation inhibitor, indicating that membrane binding is mediated by fatty acid acylation of SR. In agreement, we found that SR is acylated in transfected neuroblastoma cells using [(3)H]palmitate or [(3)H]octanoic acid as precursors. In contrast to classical S-palmitoylation of cysteines, acylation of SR occurs through the formation of an oxyester bond with serine or threonine residues. In addition, we show that phosphorylation of Thr-227 is also required for steady-state binding of SR to the membrane under basal, nonstimulated condition. We propose that the inhibition of D-serine synthesis caused by translocation of SR to the membrane provides a fail-safe mechanism to prevent NMDAR overactivation in vicinal cells or synapses.

Individualized Assessment of Exercise Capacity in Response to Acute and Long-Term Enzyme Replacement Therapy in Pediatric Pompe Disease.

BACKGROUND: Enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) with alglucosidase alfa improves the prospect of patients with infantile-onset Pompe disease (IOPD). However, a progressive decline has been reported. Objective quantification of the response to ERT when assessing newer strategies is warranted. METHODS: This combined retrospective-prospective study assessed the acute and long-term effects of ERT on exercise in IOPD patients. Evaluation included cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET), 6-min walking test (6MWT), spirometry, motor function test (GMFM-88) and enzyme blood levels. RESULTS: Thirty-four CPETs (17 pre- and 17 two days-post ERT) over variable follow-up periods were performed in four patients. Two days following ERT, blood enzyme levels increased (median, 1.22 and 10.15 µmol/L/h (p = 0.003)). However, FEV1, FVC and GMFM-88, the median 6MWD and the peak VO2 were unchanged. Long-term evaluations showed stabilization in young patients but progressive deterioration in adolescents. Clinical deterioration was associated with more pronounced deterioration in peak VO2 followed in the decreasing order by 6MWD, FVC and GMFM-88. CONCLUSIONS: The peak VO2 and 6MWD might serve as more sensitive markers to assess clinical deterioration. More studies are needed to clarify the sensitivity of the peak VO2 and 6MWT for quantification of individualized response. This may be important when assessing newer strategies and formulations in IOPD.

A recurring NFS1 pathogenic variant causes a mitochondrial disorder with variable intra-familial patient outcomes.

Iron­sulfur clusters (FeSCs) are vital components of a variety of essential proteins, most prominently within mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes I-III; Fe-S assembly and distribution is performed via multi-step pathways. Variants affecting several proteins in these pathways have been described in genetic disorders, including severe mitochondrial disease. Here we describe a Christian Arab kindred with two infants that died due to mitochondrial disorder involving Fe-S containing respiratory chain complexes and a third sibling who survived the initial crisis. A homozygous missense variant in NFS1: c.215G>A; p.Arg72Gln was detected by whole exome sequencing. The NFS1 gene encodes a cysteine desulfurase, which, in complex with ISD11 and ACP, initiates the first step of Fe-S formation. Arginine at position 72 plays a role in NFS1-ISD11 complex formation; therefore, its substitution with glutamine is expected to affect complex stability and function. Interestingly, this is the only pathogenic variant ever reported in the NFS1 gene, previously described once in an Old Order Mennonite family presenting a similar phenotype with intra-familial variability in patient outcomes. Analysis of datasets from both populations did not show a common haplotype, suggesting this variant is a recurrent de novo variant. Our report of the second case of NFS1-related mitochondrial disease corroborates the pathogenicity of this recurring variant and implicates it as a hot-spot variant. While the genetic resolution allows for prenatal diagnosis for the family, it also raises critical clinical questions regarding follow-up and possible treatment options of severely affected and healthy homozygous individuals with mitochondrial co-factor therapy or cysteine supplementation.

Pilot controlled trial of D-serine for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder.

Enhancement of neurotransmission mediated at N-methyl-D-aspartate subtype of glutamate receptors (NMDAR) may be beneficial in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). d-serine (DSR) is an endogenous full agonist at the NMDAR-associated glycine modulatory site. Twenty-two chronic PTSD outpatients were randomly assigned to participate in a 6-wk double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial with 30 mg/kg x d DSR used as monotherapy or add-on pharmacotherapy. Outcome was assessed using the Clinician-Administered PTSD scale (CAPS), Hamilton Anxiety (HAMA) and Depression (HAMD) scales and the civilian version of the Mississippi Scale for Combat-Related PTSD (MISS). DSR treatment was well tolerated and resulted in significantly (p=0.03) increased DSR serum levels. Compared with placebo administration, DSR treatment resulted in significantly reduced HAMA (p=0.007) and MISS (p=0.001) scores and a trend (p=0.07) towards improved CAPS total scores. These preliminary findings indicate that NMDAR glycine site-based pharmacotherapy may be effective in PTSD and warrant larger-sized clinical trials with optimized DSR dosages.

D-amino acids in the brain: D-serine in neurotransmission and neurodegeneration.

The mammalian brain contains unusually high levels of D-serine, a D-amino acid previously thought to be restricted to some bacteria and insects. In the last few years, studies from several groups have demonstrated that D-serine is a physiological co-agonist of the N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) type of glutamate receptor -- a key excitatory neurotransmitter receptor in the brain. D-Serine binds with high affinity to a co-agonist site at the NMDA receptors and, along with glutamate, mediates several important physiological and pathological processes, including NMDA receptor transmission, synaptic plasticity and neurotoxicity. In recent years, biosynthetic, degradative and release pathways for D-serine have been identified, indicating that D-serine may function as a transmitter. At first, D-serine was described in astrocytes, a class of glial cells that ensheathes neurons and release several transmitters that modulate neurotransmission. This led to the notion that D-serine is a glia-derived transmitter (or gliotransmitter). However, recent data indicate that serine racemase, the D-serine biosynthetic enzyme, is widely expressed in neurons of the brain, suggesting that D-serine also has a neuronal origin. We now review these findings, focusing on recent questions regarding the roles of glia versus neurons in d-serine signaling.

Cortisol-Metabolizing Enzymes in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to assess the activity of cortisol-metabolizing enzymes in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), using a fully quantitative gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GCMS) method. DESIGN: We investigated the glucocorticoid degradation pathways that include 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11ß-HSD) type 1, 5α-reductase (5α-R) and 5ß-reductase (5ß-R), 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, and 20α- and 20ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (20α-HSD and 20ß-HSD, respectively) in young nonobese women with PCOS, using a fully quantitative GCMS method. SETTING: This study was conducted in a tertiary referral hospital in Israel. PATIENTS: This study group consisted of 13 young women, aged 20.1 ± 2.8 years (mean ± SD), with the body mass index (BMI) of 22.6 ± 3.7 kg/m(2), diagnosed with PCOS according to the Rotterdam criteria. The control group consisted of 14 healthy young women matched for weight, height, and BMI. INTERVENTIONS: Urine samples were analyzed using GCMS. We measured urinary steroid metabolites that represent the products and substrates of the study enzymes and calculated the product/substrate ratios to represent enzyme activity. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The calculation of enzymatic activity, based on glucocorticoid degradation metabolites, was done by GCMS in PCOS vs. controls. RESULTS: All glucocorticoid degradation metabolites were higher in the PCOS group than in controls. Of the adrenal enzymes, the activities of 21-hydroxylase and 17α-hydroxylase were reduced, whereas the activity of 17,20-lyase was enhanced in PCOS. Of the degradation enzymes, the activity of 11ß-HSD type 1 was reduced in women with PCOS only when calculated from cortoles and cortolones ratios. The activities of 5α-R/5ß-R were increased only when calculating the 11-hydroxy metabolites of androgens. The activity of 20α-HSD was elevated in the patients with PCOS and its relation with the substrate levels was lost. CONCLUSIONS: We confirm PCOS association with low 21-hydroxylase activity. PCOS is associated with dysregulation in glucocorticoid degradation. The activity of 5α-R is enhanced only through the backdoor pathway. Marked increase in the activity of 20α-HSD suggests a hitherto unknown derangement in PCOS.

Neuron-derived D-serine release provides a novel means to activate N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors.

D-serine is a coagonist of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors that occurs at high levels in the brain. Biosynthesis of D-serine is carried out by serine racemase, which converts L- to D-serine. D-serine has been demonstrated to occur in glial cells, leading to the proposal that astrocytes are the only source of D-serine. We now report significant amounts of serine racemase and D-serine in primary neuronal cultures and neurons in vivo. Several neuronal culture types expressed serine racemase, and D-serine synthesis was comparable with that in glial cultures. Immunohistochemical staining of brain sections with new antibodies revealed the presence of serine racemase and D-serine in neurons. Cortical neurons expressing serine racemase also expressed the NR2a subunit in situ. Neuron-derived D-serine contributes to NMDA receptor activation in cortical neuronal cultures. Degradation of endogenous D-serine by addition of the recombinant enzyme D-serine deaminase diminished NMDA-elicited excitotoxicity. Release of neuronal D-serine was mediated by ionotropic glutamate receptor agonists such as NMDA, alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid, and kainate. Removal of either external Ca2+ or Na+ blocked D-serine release. Release of D-serine was mostly through a cytosolic route because it was insensitive to bafilomycin A1, a potent inhibitor of vesicular neurotransmitter uptake. D-serine was also not transported into purified synaptic vesicles under conditions optimal for the uptake of known transmitters. Our results suggest that neurons are a major source of D-serine. Glutamate-induced neuronal D-serine release provides a novel mechanism for activating NMDA receptors by an autocrine or paracrine way.