Highly active antiretroviral therapy adherence among perinatally infected HIV adolescents at a teaching hospital in Ghana.

Increased accessibility to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) has resulted in the decline of deaths among children with Perinatally Infected Human Immunodeficiency Virus (PIHIV). Their adherence to Highly Active ART (HAART) is vital for their survival and quality of life. This study aimed at determining HAART medication adherence among adolescents with PIHIV. The study was cross-sectional conducted from September 2015 to January 2016 at a teaching hospital in Ghana. It involved 106 adolescents aged 10-20 years. Morisky's eight-item medication adherence scale was adapted and used to determine the adherence level. Factors influencing adherence were also determined by interviewing the adolescents. EpiData 3.1 and Stata version 12 were used for data entry and analysis respectively. There was low adherence in 76.4% of the adolescents, and the HAART regimen associated with high medication adherence was tenofovir, lamivudine and efavirenz combinations (p = .011). Forgetfulness (p = .001) and inability to come for refill (p = .013) were the main factors associated with low adherence. However adherence was not significantly associated with a lack of medication supply or stigmatization. Addressing the modifiable factors found in this study to be associated with low adherence are essential interventions for their long-term quality of life.

The Role of Nutritional Status on Follow-up among HIV-infected Children at a Teaching Hospital Clinic in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Malnutrition and HIV infection in children interact adversely and may have a combined effect on clinical outcomes, including response to antiretroviral treatment (ART). Evidence of the role of malnutrition at the point of registration at HIV clinics is limited. This study sought to determine the role of nutritional status and other clinical factors on loss to follow-up (LTFU) among children at Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital Pediatric HIV clinic in Kumasi, Ghana. STUDY DESIGN: A total of 324 HIV-positive children aged 1.5 to 10 years old who were registered at the clinic from January 1, 2007 to June 30, 2011 were included in this retrospective study. Weight-for-age z-score (WAZ) was used to classify nutritional status. Characteristics of children who were LTFU and those who remained in care were compared using bivariate analysis and logistic regression. RESULTS: At registration, 116 (35.8%) children were severely underweight (WAZ < -3) and 72 (22.2%) were underweight (WAZ < -2). A total of 163 (50.3%) children were LTFU during the course of one year. Malnourished children compared to normal weight children (WAZ > -2) were more likely to be LTFU (P = 0.003). Initiation of antiretroviral therapy was associated with a lower risk of LTFU. In the multivariate analysis, hospital admission (OR 4.38; 95% CI 2.30, 8.34) and initiation of ART (OR 0.33; CI 0.19, 0.56) were independently associated with LTFU. CONCLUSION: Malnutrition was common among Ghanaian HIV-infected children and appeared to be associated with a higher risk of hospitalization and LTFU. Irrespective of nutritional status, the initiation of ART was associated with better retention in care.

Adequacy of WHO weight-band dosing and fixed-dose combinations for the treatment of TB in children.

BACKGROUND: We examined whether the updated WHO weight-band dosing recommendations and fixed-dose combination tablets for the treatment of TB in children achieves recommended calculated dosages and adequate drug plasma exposure.DESIGN/METHODS: Children on first-line TB treatment per WHO guidelines were enrolled. Blood sampling at pre-dose, 1, 2, 4, 8, and 12 h post-dose after at least 4 weeks of treatment was performed. Drugs concentrations were measured using validated liquid chromatography tandem with mass spectrometry and pharmacokinetic parameters calculated using noncompartmental analysis. Plasma drug exposure below the lower limit of the 95% confidence interval of the mean for children was considered low and above the upper limit was high.RESULTS: Of 71 participants, 34 (47.9%) had HIV coinfection. The median calculated dose for isoniazid (INH), rifampin (RIF), pyrazinamide (PZA), and ethambutol (EMB) was 10.0 (range 4.3-13.3), 15.0 (range 8.6-20.0), 30.0 (range 21.0-40.0), and 20.4 (range 14.3-26.7) mg/kg, respectively. Overall, most patients had under-exposure for RIF and PZA and over-exposure for INH and EMB. Drug dose and weight-for-age Z-score were associated with area under the curve from time 0-24 h for all drugs.CONCLUSIONS: Despite adherence to WHO dosing guidelines, low PZA and RIF plasma exposures were frequent in our study population. Higher than currently recommended dosages of RIF and PZA may be needed in children.

Effect of HIV infection on plasma exposure to first-line TB drugs and target attainment in children.

BACKGROUND: Whether HIV infection adversely affects exposure to first-line TB drugs in children is debatable. It is also not known whether HIV infection increases the risk of plasma underexposure or overexposure to TB drugs. This study sought to address these questions.DESIGN/METHODS: Children on TB treatment were enrolled. After 4 weeks on therapy, blood samples were collected at pre-dose, 1, 2, 4, 8, and 12 h post-dose for pharmacokinetic analysis. Plasma drug exposure below and above the lower and upper bounds of the 95% confidence intervals of the reference mean for children were considered underexposure and overexposure, respectively. The effect of HIV infection on drugs exposure and risk of underexposure were examined using multivariate analysis.RESULTS: Of 86 participants (median age: 4.9 years), 45 had HIV coinfection. HIV coinfection was associated with lower pyrazinamide (PZA) and ethambutol exposures in adjusted analysis. Patients with TB-HIV coinfection were three times more likely to have PZA underexposure than those with TB only. Underexposure of rifampin was common irrespective of HIV coinfection status.CONCLUSIONS: HIV coinfection was associated with a higher risk for PZA underexposure in children. This effect should be accounted for in models and simulations to determine optimal PZA dose for children.

Clinical standards for drug-susceptible TB in children and adolescents.

BACKGROUND: These clinical standards aim to provide guidance for diagnosis, treatment, and management of drug-susceptible TB in children and adolescents.METHODS: Fifty-two global experts in paediatric TB participated in a Delphi consensus process. After eight rounds of revisions, 51/52 (98%) participants endorsed the final document.RESULTS: Eight standards were identified: Standard 1, Age and developmental stage are critical considerations in the assessment and management of TB; Standard 2, Children and adolescents with symptoms and signs of TB disease should undergo prompt evaluation, and diagnosis and treatment initiation should not depend on microbiological confirmation; Standard 3, Treatment initiation is particularly urgent in children and adolescents with presumptive TB meningitis and disseminated (miliary) TB; Standard 4, Children and adolescents should be treated with an appropriate weight-based regimen; Standard 5, Treating TB infection (TBI) is important to prevent disease; Standard 6, Children and adolescents should receive home-based/community-based treatment support whenever possible; Standard 7, Children, adolescents, and their families should be provided age-appropriate support to optimise engagement in care and clinical outcomes; and Standard 8, Case reporting and contact tracing should be conducted for each child and adolescent.CONCLUSION: These consensus-based clinical standards, which should be adapted to local contexts, will improve the care of children and adolescents affected by TB.

Effect of malnutrition on the pharmacokinetics of anti-TB drugs in Ghanaian children.

BACKGROUND: Anti-TB drugs dosing based on weight alone may contribute to suboptimal drug concentrations and poor treatment outcomes in malnourished children. We examined the effect of malnutrition on the pharmacokinetics (PK) of first-line anti-TB drugs in children.METHODS: Drug concentrations were measured in Ghanaian children during the intensive phase of TB treatment. Weight-for-age (WFA), height-for-age (HFA), weight-for-height (WFH) and body mass index-for-age (BFA) were calculated and children with Z-scores < -2 SD (standard deviations) were considered as having malnutrition. PK differences of anti-TB drugs were compared by nutritional status.RESULTS: Of 100 participants, 24/48 (50.0%) of those younger than 5 years had wasting, 58/86 (67.4%) were underweight, and 56/99 (56.6%) had stunting; 22/51 (43.1%) children aged ≥5 years had low BFA. Children with stunting were more likely than controls to have lower mean peak concentration (Cmax) and area under the curve (AUC0-8h) of rifampin (RIF) and pyrazinamide (PZA), as well as a higher frequency of Cmax below the normal range. Wasting and underweight were associated with lower mean ethambutol (EMB) Cmax and AUC0-8h.CONCLUSIONS: The current WHO-recommended dosages were associated with lower plasma exposure of RIF, PZA and EMB in children with stunting, wasting and underweight. Anti-TB drugs dosing models for children may need to include height.

Educating caregivers to recognise the clinical signs of pneumonia in children younger than 6 months

Background. Pneumonia remains the foremost cause of death in young children in sub-Saharan Africa. This phenomenon is largely driven by poor access to healthcare and delay in seeking medical care for childhood pneumonia. Objective. To assess the effectiveness of training caregivers to recognise the early clinical signs of pneumonia. Methods. The study involved a cohort of women presenting to the Child Welfare Clinic at the Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital in Kumasi, Ghana, between 7 July and 8 September 2016. A total of 90 women with children younger than 10 weeks were recruited. Participants were trained on identifying early signs of pneumonia using low-cost equipment. Follow-up training and assessment sessions formed part of the programme.Results. At pre-training assessment, the majority of the participants (n=83/90; 92.2%) recognised lower chest indrawing as a sign of respiratory disease requiring immediate hospital intervention. Participants' performance in determining rhythms of 50 breaths per minute (bpm) and 60 bpm improved significantly across sessions (p=0.011 and p≤0.001, respectively). After training, 87 participants (96.7%) were able to determine rapid breathing accurately compared with 73 participants (81.1%) before training (p=0.001).Conclusion. The results suggest that caregivers can be effectively trained to identify clinical signs of pneumonia in young children, even in low-resource settings. A training initiative as described in this study could be an effective public health intervention to help address the burden of pneumonia in low-resource settings