[Scurvy-A now forgotten previously widespread disease]. / Der Skorbut ­ eine heute vergessene Volkskrankheit.

From the sea voyages of the fifteenth century often lasting for years with provisions only of fish, salted meat and biscuits reports came of fatal health alterations of the seamen which were characterized by prostration, loss of teeth and bad breath.Reports on comparable endemic illnesses soon came from the Netherlands, North Germany, the Baltic area, France, Lorraine, Geneva, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Swabia and Russia: the so-called land scurvy. The first medical specification was found in a letter from 1541 by Johann Echt to colleges in the area of Lower Germany, which was published four times. One of the first comprehensive considerations was prepared by the English physician James Lind. Scurvy was also mostly published under many local names, such as Skorbut, Scharbock or Scheurbuik.The pathology of scurvy is dominated by gingival necrosis with loss of teeth, hemorrhages with destruction of the cartilage-bone border especially of the ribs and by subperiosteal hemorrhages of the ribs and long bones.For treatment and prevention of scurvy eating green plants as originally Ficaria verna (lesser celandine, pilewort), Chelidonium majus (great celandine, nipplewort, tetterwort) and Cochlearia officinalis (scurvy grass) proved to be effective. Where green plants were missing decoctions of conifer needles and fresh animal innards were used. When the infantile disease originally named "acute rachitis" in England was diagnosed as scurvy (later Möller-Barlow disease) the treatment of cow's milk for baby food became of great interest.Finally, hexuronic acid, later called ascorbic acid or vitamin C, was found to be a drug that could easily dosed for curing and prevention of scurvy.

[Ergotism-a weed from Mesopotamia became an epidemic pathogen in Europe]. / Der Ergotismus ­ ein Ackerunkraut aus Mesopotamien wurde in Europa zum noch immer aktuellen Epidemie-Erreger.

In Mesopotamian wheat fields rye grew as weed and after certain developments rye reached Europe and there became a cultivable plant and the dominant grain in certain regions. With the rye also its parasite, the Claviceps purpurea, reached Europe. This ascomycete infects particular rye grains and in its developmental cycle grows to sclerotia bigger than each grain. These forms, the so-called ergots, contain the poisonous ergotalcaloids. After their intake they produce two characteristic forms of ergotism.The clinical picture of the Ergotismus gangraenosus already before the knowledge of its origin, was known as "Ignis sacer", "Anthony's Fire" and "Cold Gangrene". In this non-febrile affection mostly of the limbs, the muscles were decomposed without bleeding and without pain and thereafter the bones detached. Sooner or later the patients died.The other form, Ergotismus convulsivus, mostly described in the German literature as "Kriebelkrankheit" (Crawly disease), begins with the sensation of running ants upon the limbs and continues with painful contractions of hands and feet. In many cases there is a loss of mind and language. Finally, death occurs.The intake of ergotalcaloids predominantly with products of rye flour and meal but also during processing the harvested rye are discussed as well as the "Carry-over" by meat and milk. It is stressed that the compliance with the legal Austrian and EU regulations for the maximum contents of sclerotia and ergotalcaloids resp. in products for human and animal nourishments only can be guaranteed by continuing the technics of separating the sclerotia and their parts.

[Georg von Hofmann-Wellenhof-130 years ago the first victim at the beginning of the investigation of infectious diseases in Austria]. / Georg von Hofmann-Wellenhof, vor 130 Jahren erstes Opfer am Beginn der Erforschung der Infektionskrankheiten in Österreich.

After his medical studies in Vienna and Graz, Georg von Hofmann-Wellenhof, born in 1860 in Vienna, became an assistant at the Pathology Institute at the University of Graz. In 1887, he described a bacterium in the pharynx which resembled diphtheria bacillus. As it was not pathogenic in animal experiments, he named it Bacillus pseudodiphthericus, now Corynebacterium pseudodiphthericum. After moving to the Institute of Hygiene at the University of Vienna, he isolated a strain of glanders bacterium from a deceased patient in 1889. Because at the time there was nearly no knowledge of the virulence of glanders bacilli in man, von Hofmann-Wellenhof carried out animal experiments. During this time, he happened to contract a lethal glanders infection, probably via the respiratory tract. Autopsy revealed glanders abscesses in the respiratory tract, mediastinum, skin and muscles.

[Anno 1529 - the "English Sweating Sickness" in Vienna, the Turkish troops around Vienna]. / Anno 1529 ­ der "Englische Schweiß" in Wien, die Türken um Wien.

After the battle of Bosworth in 1485 London was frightened by a severe epidemic of Sweating Disease. Until 1551 four more followed of which only the 1525 epidemic invaded Central and Northern Europe harassing Vienna during its "First Turkish Siege".People abruptly fell ill with headache, tachycardia, fever and secretion of stinking sweat. They were afflicted with anxiety, deliria and somnolence. The illness mostly lasted for 24 h, but death although could occur earlier. At the beginning of epidemics the lethality was particularly high. The treatment with distinct medicaments had to be started instantly. The patients must be kept warm and sleepless ("Dutch Regiment"). The thus caused high lethality was lowered by omitting the hyperthermia ("English Regiment").I suppose that the Sweating Disease was an "Emerging Disease" of the 15th/16th century, as nowadays AIDS, Ebola, SARS, MERS and influenza variants are.

[Ragsorters' Disease-150 years ago a new, today a vanished occupational disease in Austria]. / Die Hadernkrankheit ­ vor 150 Jahren eine neue, heute verschwundene Berufskrankheit in Österreich.

In 1870 17 women who were engaged with shredding and sorting rags in a Lower-Austrian papermill fell ill with a highly febrile lung affection; nine of them died. Hitherto this illness was not recognised as a separate disease, the "Ragsorters' Disease". The rags were used garments and household textiles collected mostly in eastern countries as well as used contaminated bandages of hospitals. The manipulation with the rags produced much dust which was inhaled by the women, provoking some different illnesses, including the Ragsorters' Disease. Mostly without prodromes a heavy lobar or lobular pneumonia with atelectasis and oedematous softenings of the lung tissue. Histologically impressive were masses of bacteria on and between the epithelia cells and inside the walls of the alveoli. The bacteria were diagnosed as Bac. anthracis.The Ragsorters' Disease could be restrained by technical improvements and disinfection. Finally, it was extinguished by the replacement of rags by woodpulp.

[The Austrian Plague Commission in Bombay 1897 and the last fatal Plague Cases in Vienna 1898]. / Die österreichische Pestkommission in Bombay 1897 und die letzten Pest-Todesfälle in Wien 1898.

During the plague epidemic 1897 in Bombay a medical commission of the Austrian Academy of Sciences carried out clinical, pathologic-anatomical, -histological and bacteriological investigations. With the plague bacteria strains brought to Vienna bacteriological investigations and infection experiments with various species of animals were done. Finishing the animal investigations, the laboratory helper Franz Barisch caught a plague infection unnoticedly and four days later, on October 18th, 1898, he died with a heavy pulmonary affection. His treatment has been carried out by a delegate of the commission, Dozent Dr. Hermann Franz Müller, and two nurses. On October 20th one of them, Albine Pecha, fell ill. She and Dr. Müller immediately were isolated. On the same day, Dr. Müller showed symptoms of plague pneumonia. He died three days later, on October 23rd. Pecha's pulmonic plague went varying heavy and was prolonged probably by injections of plague serum. She died on October 30th, 1898.

[Eduard Reich's "Hygiene of Culture"-A retrospective on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of his death]. / Die "Kultur-Hygiene" des Eduard Reich ­ Ein Rückblick zur 100. Wiederkehr seines Todesjahres.

In contrary to the developing significance of the bacteriology and the chemical and physical noxious influences of the environment for Eduard Reich the main cause of decision between health and illness are the functions of the "soul". Components of this as important for the normal life are virtue (i. e. solidarity, performance of duty, self-knowledge), good sense to realize correlations, morality, charity and mercifulness (social behaviour). The goal of the hygiene therefore is to promote the good and to hinder the evil, as well for a complete person or only one of his organs as for the whole society. The final aim is not only the improvement of the common efficiency for any economic or military purposes but also the preservation of health of the soul.In accordance to these duties and aims Reich divides the hygiene into four parts.The "Moral Hygiene" regulates the activities directed by the brain supported by education, training and religion.The "Social Hygiene" cares for the wealth of the whole population. In Reich's time, it applied in particular to the labour, the basis for it are moral, hygiene and economy, but migration too played a great role.The "Dietetic Hygiene"-the oldest task of the preservation of health-cares for the human somatic necessities and the use of the organs. Prerequisite for this are bodily exercise and moderation, hence moral and physical training. The aim is not only preserving of the health but also gaining high age in health.The "Policed Hygiene" (Sanitary Police) has to care for the observance of reassurances for the public health. It must be done with charity and kindness and has to paralyse a heartless economy as poverty is the worst enemy of health. The duties of the sanitary police in the various districts should be fulfilled by boards of health, of education and of public safety. Each of these boards consists of a legislative and an executive part.Reich's concept of the hygiene as result of the application of moral and charity as well in the lifetime of each individual as of the whole society justifies the already forgotten terminus "Hygiene of Culture".

[Pasteur's rabies vaccination: 130 years ago successfully started in Vienna, however officially rejected]. / Pasteurs Wut-Schutzimpfung- vor 130 Jahren in Wien mit Erfolg begonnen und doch offiziell abgelehnt.

The Viennese surgeon Emerich Ullmann who was trained in rabies vaccination by Pasteur personally started his activity in Vienna on 28.6.1886 vaccinating persons of Austria-Hungary been bitten by rabid animals. Whereas Prof. v.Frisch of the other surgical clinic who also had visited Pasteur carried out animal experiments which urged him to disapprove Pasteur's human rabies vaccination. Ullmann vaccinated with great success but soon there appeared obstructions in Viennese medical journals and hateful discussions in the Austrian Parliament against Pasteur and Ullmann. These facts blocked the necessary financial subvention of Ullmann's self financed vaccinations and resulted in their interruption. After a mass infection of rabies in the Bukowina in 1891 the Supreme Sanitary Board formed an Epidemiologic Committee which recommended the establishment of a vaccination unit in an Austrian hospital. In July 1894 the Vaccination Unit was opened in the Viennese hospital Rudolfstiftung, where Emerich Ullmann carried out the rabies vaccinations.

[Spotted fever and the invention of its serodiagnosis and vaccination in the Austro-Hungarian army in World War I]. / Das Fleckfieber und die Erfindung seiner Serodiagnose und Impfung bei der k. u. k. Armee im Ersten Weltkrieg.

After description of the medical institutions and epidemiological situations of the Austro-Hungarian army in World War I the provisions against spotted fever focused on louse control are discussed. The letter specified for the army had to be adjusted for the local populations. 1915 in the k.u.k. military service in Galicia Edmund Weil and Arthur Felix cultivated Proteus strains from urine of soldiers with spotted fever. As sera of such patients agglutinated these bacteria in considerable titers the investigators developed the reliable diagnostic "Weil-Felix-Test" used still today. In the same military area and time Rudolf Weigl invented the anal infection of lice. This enabled him to harvest a great amount of louse intestines containing the spotted fever Rickettsiae in their epithelial cells. Lots with defined numbers of intestines were homogenized, sterilized and used with success as vaccine for medical staff. This sort of vaccine still was used in World War II.

[Franz Coelestin Ritter von Schneider-Vienna's first medical chemist and teacher of the first Austrian hygienists. The 200th anniversary of his birthday]. / Franz Coelestin Ritter von Schneider - Wiens erster medizinischer Chemiker und Lehrer der ersten österreichischen Hygieniker. Zur 200. Wiederkehr seines Geburtstages.

Franz Schneider (13.09.1812-29.11.1897) in 1850 was appointed the first lecturer on "Chemistry for physicians" by the Viennese university. Two years later he accepted the professorship in the military medical schools in the "Josephinum" from where he shifted to the philosophical faculty as professor of "Common and medical chemistry". Soon after this start in 1870 he became unable to continue his work because of an explosion during experiments. Thus in 1876 the emperor called Schneider to the Austrian public health administration as director. In the following twelve years he achieved great successes in his duties. As a scientist he had worked on various topics of organic and inorganic chemistry. But beyond that Schneider succeeded in imparting to his assistants the modality of scientific work and the way of hygienic thinking. Thus his scholars Josef Nowak, Florian Kratschmer and Max Gruber were well prepared to become Austria's first university hygienists.

[The Austrian Red Cross and Austrian bacteriologists in the Balkan wars 1912/13 - Centenary of the first application of the bacteriology in theatres of war]. / Das Österreichische Rote Kreuz und österreichische Bakteriologen in den Balkankriegen 1912/13 - Zentennium des ersten Einsatzes der Bakteriologie auf Kriegsschauplätzen.

When Austria joined the Geneva Convention the "Patriotischer Hilfsverein" (Patriotic Aid Society) which was founded for the concerns of wounded soldiers, was named "Austrian Society of the Red Cross". It had to stand its first big test in 1912 in the first Balkan war; military surgeons and bacteriologists were deployed to all warring states. The cholera dominated under the infectious diseases among the various forces and the civilian populations. Upon request of the Bulgarian king renowned bacteriologists of the University of Vienna were dispatched. Their work presented the first action of bacteriology for disease control on theatres of war. The great success of the surgical and hygienic measures initiated in 1912 a reform of the Austrian Red Cross. In 1913 Austria made a detailed application to the International Committee of the Red Cross in order to extend the Geneva Convention to war epidemics. The Committee forwarded and recommended this application to all member states, however, the outbreak of the First World War then prevented its resolution.

[Pellagra-originally described in the Austrian Empire 250 years ago became a fatal endemic in some provinces]. / Die Pellagra ­ vor 250 Jahren im Kaisertum Österreich erstmals beschrieben, wurde sie zu einer lebensbedrohenden Endemie in einigen Provinzen.

Pellagra is characterized by "dermatitis - diarrhea - dementia - death". Various causes were discussed over the course of two centuries. The initial presumption was that the sun caused changes in exposed areas of the body. The "Zeïsts" blamed the maize (corn), which forms the main constituent in the diet of poor peoples, for being an insufficient nutrient and thus causing the pellagra in such indigent populations. The "Toxikozeïsts", however, regarded toxins produced by innocuous bacteria and fungi in unripe or in ripe but badly stored maize or in maize flour or in poorly baked maize bread as the cause of pellagra. Pellagra as an allergic disease was also discussed. Self-experiments of Goldberger's group in 1916 and finally Elvehjem's detection of niacin deficiency in maize in 1937 solved the problem.In the Austrian empire and (from 1867 on) in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, pellagra was diagnosed and combated in the provinces of Küstenland, Tirolia and Bukovina and in Hungary. Originally believing in the noxiousness of maize in the poor population, extensive measures were planned and partially executed. Primarily measures for providing salubrious maize products were planned for the population, such as public bakeries and eating houses, kilns and storage houses for maize. For the treatment of pellagra patients, so-called pellagrosaria and auxiliary hospitals were established and the number of general practitioners was increased. It was also important to educate the population about preventing pellagra by consuming proper food. Pellagra funds to sustain the measures were established. In the provinces, pellagra commissions, chaired by the governor and consisting of twelve experts of the relevant medical branches, were appointed as an advisory and expert body.

[The Vienna School of Water Hygiene from the End of World War II until now]. / Die Wiener Schule der Wasser-Hygiene nach dem 2. Weltkrieg bis heute.

After the economic stagnation of the 1930s and World War II the water-hygiene had to revive. Besides basic research for large projects as the 3rd Viennese water-conduct, the Danube hydroelectric power station in Hainburg and the Marchfeldkanal new fields were opened. The evidence of fecal spring-water contamination by determination of the spectral-absorption-coefficients avoids the delay by bacterial cultivation and enables immediate satellite-transmission to central stations for turning-off the afflux. Determination of the origin (human and ruminant) of isolated E. coli by Real-time-PCR indicates necessities for sanitation. Investigation on UV-water-disinfection, considering also the formation of carcinogenic and genotoxic compounds, resulted in the only European national UV-norm and the establishment of one of the wordwide four testing institutions of UV-water-disinfection. The department for water-hygiene of the Medical University of Vienna carries out specific duties in various national committees of public health importance as well as in collaboration with EU, WHO, ISO and other international commissions.

[170 years of struggle of the Viennese physicians for hygienically safe drinking water]. / 170 Jahre Streit der Wiener Arzte für ein hygienisch einwandfreies Trinkwasser.

Discussions in the Society of Physicians in Vienna about the connection between water contamination and typhoid outbreaks began in 1838. The basis of the water supply at that time was house wells partly drawing contaminated ground water and for a limited area the Kaiser-Ferdinand-Pipeline was useful. After many investigations on quantities and qualities of possible water sources and controversial discussions between Viennese politicians and the Society of Physicians, the latter strictly turned down the usage of surface water. In October 1865 the Society demanded that the source Kaiserbrunn in the Höllental and two other sources nearby in the Limestone Alps should be used for the Viennese water supply. After initial opposition in the municipal council and an outbreak of cholera in Vienna, the erection of the 1st Viennese Mountain-source Water Pipeline was started and the Pipeline was opened in 1873. Because of its insufficient quantity of water for the growing town the Society of Physicians became active again, supported by the Institute of hygiene founded in 1875. This resulted in the erection of the 2nd Viennese Mountain-source Water Pipeline, which was opened in 1910. A threat which had to be met were repeated plans for tourist developments.

[The development of the Austrian medical system-250 years ago the "Sanitäts-Hauptnormativ", 150 years ago the "Reichs-Sanitätsgesetz"]. / Das Werden des österreichischen Sanitätswesens ­ vor 250 Jahren das "Sanitäts-Hauptnormativ", vor 150 Jahren das "Reichs-Sanitätsgesetz".

The first regulations of the healthcare system in the domains and cities of the German Empire were the infection and plague regulations issued in many places from the sixteenth century onwards; however, as early as 1348 the Venetian state formed precise state structures to combat the black death that had broken out in Europe at the time. These were taken over analogously and in part in the Austrian states. Defense measures against the plague became particularly important on the k. k. (imperial-royal) military frontier against the Ottoman Empire. Under Empress Maria Theresa's enlightened absolutism, the state felt obliged to provide the largest possible healthy population with the help of the medical police. The fight against smallpox in Austria is described as an example. Through the collaboration of Maria Theresia with her protomedicus Gerard van Swieten, a codification of the k. k. healthcare system was created. As a quasi preliminary attempt the Empress proclaimed the Main Medical Regulations for Bohemia in 1753, which were supplemented 2 years later by the General Health Regulations for the Austrian Littoral. The result was the comprehensive medical standard for all hereditary lands from 1770. This brought about a regulation of all healthcare professions and their use for public health. Maria Theresa's son and successor introduced a further development of the administration in the direction of centralization and promotion of social conditions and humanitarian institutions, such as hospitals, infirmaries, childbirth houses and madhouses as well as foundling institutions and orphanages and poor and workhouses as special institutions. He was also very interested in promoting military medicine. The last major step in the development of the Austrian public healthcare system was the Imperial Sanitary Act of 1870. This is also the basis for the current structure of healthcare administration. The sanitary tasks are (and were) regulated in the legislation and enforcement of the (k.k.) State, and the federal states (kingdoms and countries represented in the Imperial Assembly) and the municipalities in, however, still existing complex division of some affairs between federal, state and local authorities.

[Paskal Joseph Ritter von Ferro, the Reformer of the Austrian Public Health. On the occasion of the 200th anniversary of his death in consequence of the battle of Wagram against Napoleon]. / Paskal Joseph Ritter von Ferro, der Reformator des österreichischen Gesundheitswesens : Zur 200. Wiederkehr des Tages seines Todes im Gefolge der Schlacht bei Wagram.

Paskal Joseph Ferro, born on June 5th, 1753 in Bonn, Germany, in the course of his military service as a surgeon graduated medicine in 1777 in Strasbourg and Vienna. Here initially he worked as a private physician in a hospital. In 1785 he became an assistant to the leading municipal physician, in 1793 he was appointed director of the district hospitals and in 1793 medical official in charge of Lower Austria. In 1795 Ferro was the first on the now created position of "Protomedicus" (director of the health administration) of an Austrian country. His most important acts were the creation of the first medical cold water bath in Austria, the foundation of institutions for the salvation of casualties, the introduction of rooms to lay out the dead in the communities, the organization of dispersed health regulations and their publications for common knowledge and especially the introduction of the smallpox vaccination in 1799 first time outside the UK. After the battle of Wagram (north to Vienna) in the Napoleonic war (July 6th, 1809) he had to care for the wounded and 56,000 dead soldiers on the battle field. In this action he contracted typhoid fever and consequently died on August 21st, 1809.