Supporting Adolescents with Guidance and Employment (SAGE).

Supporting Adolescents with Guidance and Employment (SAGE) is a multifaceted, community-based violence-prevention program. Its target is African-American male adolescents in Durham, North Carolina. Public health professionals, county government officials, and local businessmen collaborated in its development and implementation. The program is based on the paradigm of risk and protective factors, in which various risk factors for youth violence are buffered by modifiable, protective psychosocial processes. SAGE includes an eight-month African-American Rites of Passage program (adult mentoring, African-American culture and history lessons, and manhood and conflict-resolution training), a six-week summer employment component, and a 12-week entrepreneurial experience. Of the 260 youth recruited, 88 were randomly assigned to receive all three program components, 85 were assigned to the summer employment and entrepreneurial components only, and 87 were assigned to a delayed program or control condition. We compared these three groups' psychosocial and behavioral outcomes using survey data and archival records. Program implementation data include attendance records; mentor-youth activity logs pre- and postprogram focus group discussions; and telephone interviews with parents, program staff, and participants. The mean age of the adolescents recruited into the program was 14. Half reported receiving free lunches at school; half were not living with a father; and one quarter reported that their mothers had not completed high school. During the previous year, many had engaged in various violence-related behaviors, including fighting (49%) and carrying a gun (22%). Youths in each program condition were similar with respect to key demographic and behavioral characteristics. The key components of the SAGE program represent increasingly popular but untested approaches. Preliminary results reveal that these youths are involved in violent behavior both as perpetrators and as victims.

Parental cigarette smoking and cognitive performance of children.

A prior study identified a relationship between parental cigarette smoking and cognitive performance by adolescent children who did not smoke. That study was stimulated by the reasoning that environmental smoke might influence performance through oxygen deprivation. The present study, using longitudinal data from the Child Health and Development Studies (1987), extended the earlier research by controlling for mother's prenatal smoking and other potentially confounding variables and by examining four different measures of cognitive performance. The findings indicate that the relationship between parental smoking and at least one of the cognitive measures persists with controls and that there is a dose-response relationship between parental smoking and cognitive performance. Findings are discussed in the context of mechanisms that might explain the association between parental smoking and child cognition.

Characteristics of students who bring weapons to school.

PURPOSE: This study explores the relationships between social, demographic, and behavioral characteristics and self-reported carrying of a weapon to school among middle school students. The results provide a statistical profile of youth most likely to bring weapons to school and help to identify characteristics that are only spuriously related to this behavior. METHODS: Study respondents were part of an ongoing randomized evaluation of a school-based drug use prevention program in Illinois. Self-administered questionnaires were completed by 1,503 seventh and eighth graders in the spring of 1992. RESULTS: Fifteen percent of respondents brought some type of weapon to school in the past month. In a multivariate logistic regression model, being male, not living with both parents, not feeling close to parents, drinking heavily, participating in fights, damaging school property, and perceiving that at least a few other students brought weapons to school, were significantly associated with weapon carrying. Victimization and fear for safety in school were not significantly associated with weapon carrying in the multivariate model. CONCLUSIONS: Study results suggest that both the structure and the dynamics of the family play an important role in weapon carrying behavior. Weapon carrying also appears to cluster with other deviant behaviors. Furthermore, the findings suggest that weapons are not brought to school because of a heightened need for protection, but rather may be in response to normative influences in school.

Predicting continued use of marijuana among adolescents: the relative influence of drug-specific and social context factors.

Most research on the determinants of adolescent drug use has focused on predictors of either initiation or current use. Little attention has been given to the determinants of continued use of drugs after initiation, even though some researchers have found that the consequences of continued use are more serious than those associated with experimental or occasional use. In this study, a longitudinal sample of 456 secondary and high school students who had already tried marijuana was used to examine the determinants of continued use of marijuana. Nearly 38 percent of those who had tried marijuana continued using, according to the definition operationalized in this study. Potential predictor measures were grouped in a drug-specific domain and a social context domain, and their effects on continued use, controlling for background characteristics, were examined in logistic regression models. Results showed that only the drug-specific domain had a statistically significant effect on the likelihood of continued use. Students who felt that the adverse physical and psychological effects of marijuana were not very important reasons for discontinuing use and those who had gotten stoned during their experimental stage of use were the most likely to continue use after initiation. The results suggest that the perceived physical and psychological effects of the drug are more important determinants of continued use than are social factors or benefits related to use. Any relationships between social factors and continued use are mediated by the perceived effects and risks of the drug.

School and neighborhood characteristics associated with school rates of alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use.

Previous research has noted that schools vary in substance use prevalence rates, but explanations for school differences have received little empirical attention. We assess variability across elementary schools (N = 36) in rates of early adolescent alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use. Characteristics of neighborhoods and schools potentially related to school prevalence rates are examined, as well as whether these characteristics have independent effects or whether neighborhood characteristics are mediated by school characteristics. Neighborhood and school characteristics were measured using student, parent, and archival data. The findings show substantial variation across schools in substance use. Attributes of neighborhoods and schools are statistically significantly related to school rates of lifetime alcohol use, lifetime cigarette use, and current cigarette use. Contrary to expectations, lifetime alcohol and cigarette use rates are higher in schools located in neighborhoods having greater social advantages as indicated by the perceptions of residents and archival data. Neighborhood effects are expressed both directly and indirectly through school characteristics. The findings are discussed in light of contagion and social disorganization theories.

The characterization of inconsistencies in self-reports of alcohol and marijuana use in a longitudinal study of adolescents.

The reliability of self-reported measures remains an important issue for research on adolescent alcohol and drug use. Many studies have concluded that adolescents' self-reports are valid and reliable, but few studies have excluded consistent nonusers from their reliability estimates, and no study has examined in detail the reliability of reported age at first use of substances. This study explores the consistency of self-reports of frequency of use and age of first use of alcohol and marijuana in a sample of 5,770 secondary school students in a southeastern U.S. county. Two waves of data were collected between 1985 and 1988 using state-of-the-art data collection procedures and self-administered instruments. Consistency of reports was examined by comparing reports at T1 and T2, approximately 1 year apart. Results showed that when consistent nonusers were dropped from the analysis, consistency rates of lifetime frequency of use dropped from 82.7% to 74.7% for alcohol and from 95.6% to 83.2% for marijuana. Reports were more consistent for lifetime marijuana use than for alcohol use, but these results must be interpreted with caution given differences in the measures for the two substances. Reliability of reported age of first use was very low for both substances. When consistent nonusers were dropped from the analysis, only 27.8% of respondents made consistent estimates of their age at first alcohol use and 34.4% for their age at first marijuana use. Implications and recommendations for this area of research are discussed.

Long-term evaluation of drug abuse resistance education.

Project DARE (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) is the most prevalent school-based drug-use prevention program in the United States, but there is little evidence of its effectiveness. Results from a longitudinal evaluation of the program in 36 schools in Illinois provide only limited support for DARE's impact on student's drug use immediately following the intervention, and no support for either continued or emerging impact on drug use 1 or 2 years after receiving DARE instruction. In addition, DARE had only limited positive effects on psychological variables (i.e., self-esteem) and no effect on social variables (e.g., peer resistance skills). Possible substantive and methodological explanations for the relative lack of DARE's effectiveness observed in this study are discussed.

Measuring intermediate outcomes of violence prevention programs targeting African-American male youth: an exploratory assessment of the psychometric properties of six psychosocial measures.

This study examined the psychometric properties of six psychosocial measures that may be useful indicators of intermediate outcomes of violence prevention programs targeting African-American male youth. Baseline and 6 month follow-up survey data are used from 223 African-American male 12-16 year olds participating in a violence prevention program evaluation study. The constructs of interest are beliefs supporting aggression, aggressive conflict-resolution style, hostility, ethnic identity, self-esteem and hopelessness. Each construct is measured as a multi-item scale. Exploratory factor analysis results provided limited support for the unidimensionality of these scales, thus suggesting that further scale development is warranted. Reliability coefficients for the scales ranged from 0.55 to 0.80. Bivariate analyses with baseline data indicate that all six measures have construct and criterion-related validity, as they are associated with each other and with four behavioral criteria in the expected directions. Predictive validity was also demonstrated for beliefs supporting aggression, aggressive conflict-resolution style, hostility and hopelessness which were associated with weapon-carrying behaviors measured in the 6 month follow-up survey both before and after controlling for corresponding behaviors measured in the baseline survey.

Alcohol misuse in young adulthood: effects of race, educational attainment, and social context.

We analyzed survey data collected from 1,582 African-American and White young adults to determine 1) whether the relationship between educational attainment and alcohol misuse would vary by race, and 2) what social and psychological factors might explain the differential effects of educational attainment on alcohol misuse. Low educational attainment was positively associated with alcohol misuse among African-American young adults, while high educational attainment was positively associated with alcohol misuse among Whites. Selected social and psychological factors (e.g., unemployment, emotional distress) did not explain the differential effect of low educational attainment of alcohol misuse, but college status and attitudes favorable toward alcohol use accounted for racial differences in the effect of high educational attainment on alcohol misuse. This study may help to explain why disproportionately higher rates of alcohol-related health and social problems have been observed in the African-American adult population, but additional research is needed to better understand the long-term and differential effects of educational attainment on alcohol misuse.

How effective is drug abuse resistance education? A meta-analysis of Project DARE outcome evaluations.

OBJECTIVES: Project DARE (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) is the most widely used school-based drug use prevention program in the United States, but the findings of rigorous evaluations of its effectiveness have not been considered collectively. METHODS: We used meta-analytic techniques to review eight methodologically rigorous DARE evaluations. Weighted effect size means for several short-term outcomes also were compared with means reported for other drug use prevention programs. RESULTS: The DARE effect size for drug use behavior ranged from .00 to .11 across the eight studies; the weighted mean for drug use across studies was .06. For all outcomes considered, the DARE effect size means were substantially smaller than those of programs emphasizing social and general competencies and using interactive teaching strategies. CONCLUSIONS: DARE's short-term effectiveness for reducing or preventing drug use behavior is small and is less than for interactive prevention programs.

First-year impact of the 1989 California cigarette tax increase on cigarette consumption.

We employed a time series design to evaluate the impact of the 1989 California cigarette tax increase on cigarette consumption in California. Adult per capita consumption data from 1980 to 1990 were analyzed for California and the United States. Trend data indicated a sharp drop in California cigarette consumption coincident with the tax increase. Time-series regression analyses support this observation, and suggest that a 5% to 7% decline in consumption is attributable to the tax increase.

Using social indicators to estimate county-level substance use intervention and treatment needs.

This study describes the development of a model for estimating county-level substance use intervention and treatment needs using social indicators. Forty-five indicators conceptually related to substance misuse were reduced through factor analysis. Logistic regression models were then developed using selected indicators to predict service needs. The following variables were significant predictors of substance use intervention and treatment needs: the percent of the population who is male aged 15 to 34, urbanicity, and population density. The results suggest that substance misuse may be successfully modeled by a few easy to obtain and reliably measured variables describing the population characteristics of local communities.