A cancer personalised activity and lifestyle tool (CAN-PAL): A codesign study with patients and healthcare professionals.

AIMS: To codesign a cancer personalised activity and lifestyle tool (CAN-PAL) based on an existing tool. To help cancer care workers support people affected by cancer to plan and integrate physical activity into lifestyles. DESIGN: Mixed-methods codesign study. METHODS: Phase 1: Focus groups with people affected by cancer (n = 10) or interviews (n = 2) to discuss suitable physical activities and adaptation of the existing tool. Data were recorded, transcribed and analysed thematically. Themes informed the design of the prototype CAN-PAL and user guide. Phase 2: Healthcare professionals considered the potential use of the CAN-PAL prototype and completed an online survey including the system usability scale and free text responses. RESULTS: Phase 1: Identified suitable physical activities and four themes were identified including: Capability, benefits, barriers and resources which informed the prototype CAN-PAL and user guide. Phase 2: The user survey was completed by 12 healthcare professionals. Median (range) system usability scale was 80 (50-95) (best score 100), scores >68 indicate good or better usability. Themes from the free text comments included strengths, amendments, considerations and limitations. Results were used to finalise CAN-PAL and the user guide. CONCLUSION: The codesigned CAN-PAL tool had good usability. Further work is needed to evaluate the impact of CAN-PAL on activity levels and behaviour in people affected by cancer. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: People affected by cancer need support to undertake physical activity. The purpose of CAN-PAL is to assist cancer care workers to support people affected by cancer to plan and integrate physical activity into lifestyles. PATIENT OR PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION: Public partners considered the findings from Phase 1 and 2 and informed the design of the prototype, final CAN-PAL and user guide and coauthored the paper. REPORTING METHOD: The study adhered to relevant EQUATOR guidelines; the study was reported according to the COREQ checklist.

Daily physical activity and related risk factors in COPD.

BACKGROUND: Factors associated with reduced daily physical activity (DPA) in patients with COPD are still controversial. Physical inactivity in COPD increases risk of cardiovascular disease, frequent exacerbations, reduced health status, and increased symptoms. We hypothesised that reduced DPA in patients with COPD is independent of traditional risk factors including age and spirometry. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, DPA (over 7 days) was assessed on 88 community stable patients with COPD and 40 controls free from cardiorespiratory disease. Spirometry, body composition, number of exacerbations, handgrip strength (HGS), modified Medical Research Council (mMRC), arterial stiffness, 6-min walking distance (6MWD) and BODE index were also determined. Frequent exacerbation was defined as ≥2 and non-frequent exacerbation < 2. RESULTS: Patients with COPD had reduced DPA and exercise capacity compared with controls similar in age, BMI and gender, p < 0.001. Frequent exacerbators had less DPA than infrequent exacerbators and both less than controls, p < 0.001. Patients with higher BODE index were less active than those with lower index. Time spent on moderate activity was related to cardiovascular risk factors including arterial stiffness. The DPA in patients was independent of age, gender, spirometry, body composition and HGS, p > 0.05. The level of breathlessness was superior to lung function in predicting the level of DPA. CONCLUSION: The level of DPA in COPD was independent of traditional risk factors. Breathlessness score is a better predictor of the DPA than lung function and handgrip strength.

A longitudinal study of muscle strength and function in patients with cancer cachexia.

PURPOSE: Patients with cancer frequently experience an involuntary loss of weight (in particular loss of muscle mass), defined as cachexia, with profound implications for independence and quality of life. The rate at which such patients' physical performance declines has not been well established. The aim of this study was to determine the change in muscle strength and function over 8 weeks in patients with already established cancer cachexia, to help inform the design and duration of physical activity interventions applicable to this patient group. METHODS: Patients with thoracic and gastrointestinal cancer and with unintentional weight loss of > 5% in 6 months or BMI < 20 plus 2% weight loss were included. Physical and functional assessments (baseline, 4 weeks, 8 weeks) included isometric quadriceps and hamstring strength, handgrip, standing balance, 10-m walk time and timed up and go. RESULTS: Fifty patients (32 male), mean ± SD age 65 ± 10 years and BMI 24.9 ± 4.3 kg/m2, were recruited. Thoracic cancer patients had lower muscle strength and function (p < 0.05). Despite notable attrition, in patients who completed all assessments (8 thoracic and 12 gastrointestinal), there was little change in performance over 8 weeks (p > 0.05). Baseline variables did not differentiate between completers and non-completers (p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: More than a third of patients with established cancer cachexia in our study were stable over 8 weeks, suggesting a subgroup who may benefit from targeted interventions of reasonable duration. Better understanding the physical performance parameters which characterise and differentiate these patients has important clinical implications for cancer multidisciplinary team practice.

Aortic Pulse Wave Velocity as a Measure of Cardiovascular Risk in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Two-Year Follow-Up Data from the ARCADE Study.

Background and objectives: Cardiovascular (CV) disease is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Patients with COPD have increased arterial stiffness, which may predict future CV risk. However, the development of arterial stiffness in COPD has not yet been studied prospectively. The Assessment of Risk in Chronic Airways Disease Evaluation (ARCADE) is a longitudinal study of CV risk and other comorbidities in COPD. The aims of this analysis were to explore factors associated with aortic pulse wave velocity (aPWV) at baseline and to describe the progression of aPWV in patients with COPD and comparators over two years. Materials and methods: At baseline, 520 patients with COPD (confirmed by spirometry) and 150 comparators free from respiratory disease were assessed for body composition, blood pressure, aPWV, noninvasive measures of cardiac output, inflammatory biomarkers, and exercise capacity. This was repeated after two years, and mortality cases and causes were also recorded. Results: At baseline, aPWV was greater in COPD patients 9.8 (95% confidence interval (CI) 9.7-10.0) versus comparators 8.7 (8.5-9.1) m/s (p < 0.01) after adjustments for age, mean arterial pressure (MAP), and heart rate. Mean blood pressure was 98 ± 11 in COPD patients and 95 ± 10 mmHg in comparators at baseline (p = 0.004). After two years, 301 patients and 105 comparators were fully reassessed. The mean (95% CI) aPWV increased similarly in patients 0.44 (0.25-0.63) and comparators 0.46 (0.23-0.69) m/s, without a change in blood pressure. At the two-year follow-up, there were 29 (6%) deaths in COPD patients, with the majority due to respiratory causes, with an overall dropout of 43% of patients with COPD and 30% of comparators. Conclusions: This was the first large longitudinal study of CV risk in COPD patients, and we confirmed greater aPWV in COPD patients than comparators after adjustments for confounding factors. After two years, patients and comparators had a similar increase of almost 0.5 m/s aPWV.

Fibrinogen does not relate to cardiovascular or muscle manifestations in COPD: cross-sectional data from the ERICA study.

Cardiovascular and skeletal muscle manifestations constitute important comorbidities in COPD, with systemic inflammation proposed as a common mechanistic link. Fibrinogen has prognostic role in COPD. We aimed to determine whether aortic stiffness and quadriceps weakness are linked in COPD, and whether they are associated with the systemic inflammatory mediator-fibrinogen. Aortic pulse wave velocity (aPWV), quadriceps maximal volitional contraction (QMVC) force and fibrinogen were measured in 729 patients with stable, Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) stages II-IV COPD. The cardiovascular and muscular manifestations exist independently (P=0.22, χ2). Fibrinogen was not associated with aPWV or QMVC (P=0.628 and P=0.621, respectively), making inflammation, as measured by plasma fibrinogen, an unlikely common aetiological factor.

Patients with established cancer cachexia lack the motivation and self-efficacy to undertake regular structured exercise.

OBJECTIVES: Patients with advanced cancer frequently suffer a decline in activities associated with involuntary loss of weight and muscle mass (cachexia). This can profoundly affect function and quality of life. Although exercise participation can maintain physical and psychological function in patients with cancer, uptake is low in cachectic patients who are underrepresented in exercise studies. To understand how such patients' experiences are associated with exercise participation, we investigated exercise history, self-confidence, and exercise motivations in patients with established cancer cachexia, and relationships between relevant variables. METHODS: Lung and gastrointestinal cancer outpatients with established cancer cachexia (n = 196) completed a questionnaire exploring exercise history and key constructs of the Theory of Planned Behaviour relating to perceived control, psychological adjustment, and motivational attitudes. RESULTS: Patients reported low physical activity levels, and few undertook regular structured exercise. Exercise self-efficacy was very low with concerns it could worsen symptoms and cause harm. Patients showed poor perceived control and a strong need for approval but received little advice from health care professionals. Preferences were for low intensity activities, on their own, in the home setting. Regression analysis revealed no significant factors related to the independent variables. CONCLUSIONS: Frequently employed higher intensity, group exercise models do not address the motivational and behavioural concerns of cachectic cancer patients in this study. Developing exercise interventions which match perceived abilities and skills is required to address challenges of self-efficacy and perceived control identified. Greater engagement of health professionals with this group is required to explore potential benefits of exercise.

Frailty: A global measure of the multisystem impact of COPD.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a multisystem disease that resembles the accumulation of multiple impairments seen in aging. A comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA) captures multisystem deficits, from which a frailty index (FI) can be derived. We hypothesized that patients with COPD would be frailer than a comparator group free from respiratory disease. In this cross-sectional analysis, the CGA questionnaire was completed and used to derive an FI in 520 patients diagnosed with COPD and 150 comparators. All subjects were assessed for lung function, body composition, 6-minute walking distance (6MWD), and handgrip strength. Patients completed validated questionnaires on health-related quality of life and respiratory symptoms. Patients and comparators were similar in age, gender, and body mass index, but patients had a greater mean ± SD FI 0.16 ± 0.08 than comparators 0.05 ± 0.03. In patients, a stepwise linear regression 6MWD ( ß = -0.43), number of comorbidities ( ß = -0.38), handgrip ( ß = -0.11), and number of exacerbations ( ß = 0.11) were predictors of frailty (all p < 0.01). This large study suggests patients with COPD are frailer than comparators. The FI derived from the CGA captures the deterioration of multiple systems in COPD and provides an overview of impairments, which may identify individuals at increased risk of morbidity and mortality in COPD.

Autoantibodies of IgM and IgG classes show differences in recognition of multiple autoantigens in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Autoimmunity occurs in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). We describe an antigen microarray for detecting serum autoantibodies (AAbs) to determine how IgM, as well as IgG, AAbs distinguish patients with COPD from controls with a history of smoking without COPD. All COPD patients' sera contained elevated levels of AAbs to some of 30 autoantigens. There were significant differences in the autoantigenic specificities of IgM AAbs compared to IgG AAbs in the COPD sera: for example, AAbs to histone and scl-70 were mainly IgG, whereas AAbs to CENP-B and La/ssB were mainly IgM; by contrast, IgM and IgG AAbs to collagen-V were equally prevalent. Thus, a combination of IgM and IgG AAbs specific for multiple autoantigens are detected in all cases of COPD at a level at which all non-COPD controls are negative for AAbs. This highlights the importance of different classes of AAbs to a range of autoantigens in COPD.

Evaluating the role of inflammation in chronic airways disease: the ERICA study.

Extrapulmonary manifestations are recognized to be of increasing clinical importance in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary disease. To investigate cardiovascular and skeletal muscle manifestations of COPD, we developed a unique UK consortium funded by the Technology Strategy Board and Medical Research Council comprising industry in partnership with 5 academic centres. ERICA (Evaluating the Role of Inflammation in Chronic Airways disease) is a prospective, longitudinal, observational study investigating the prevalence and significance of cardiovascular and skeletal muscle manifestations of COPD in 800 subjects. Six monthly follow up will assess the predictive value of plasma fibrinogen, cardiovascular abnormalities and skeletal muscle weakness for death or hospitalization. As ERICA is a multicentre study, to ensure data quality we sought to minimise systematic observer error due to variations in investigator skill, or adherence to operating procedures, by staff training followed by assessment of inter- and intra-observer reliability of the four key measurements used in the study: pulse wave velocity (PWV), carotid intima media thickness (CIMT), quadriceps maximal voluntary contraction force (QMVC) and 6-minute walk distance (6MWT). This report describes the objectives and methods of the ERICA trial, as well as the inter- and intra-observer reliability of these measurements.

Assessment of Risk in Chronic Airways Disease Evaluation (ARCADE): Protocol and preliminary data.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a multisystem disease. Established comorbidities include cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, loss of muscle mass and function, depression, and impaired quality of life. The natural history is not well understood. The Assessment of Risk in Chronic Airways Disease Evaluation (ARCADE) is a longitudinal study of comorbidities in COPD. The primary aims are to delineate the progression and interrelationships of cardiovascular disease and associated comorbidities. Each year ARCADE aims to recruit 250 patients diagnosed with COPD and 50 comparators (free from respiratory disease). Assessments include spirometry, body composition, blood pressure, aortic stiffness (pulse wave velocity (PWV)), noninvasive measures of cardiac output, systemic inflammatory mediators, blood and urine biochemistry, and physical and health outcomes. These will be repeated at 2 and 5 years. In the first year of recruitment, 350 patients and 100 comparators were recruited. The reproducibility of aortic PWV, cardiac output, stroke volume, and cardiac index was evaluated and accepted in 30 patients free from overt cardiovascular disease. The preliminary data from ARCADE have demonstrated acceptable reproducibility of hemodynamic outcome measures. Further longitudinal data collection will increase knowledge of the progression and interactions between cardiovascular risk factors and other comorbidities in COPD.

Access, acceptance and adherence to cancer prehabilitation: a mixed-methods systematic review.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this systematic review is to better understand access to, acceptance of and adherence to cancer prehabilitation. METHODS: MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsychINFO, Embase, Physiotherapy Evidence Database, ProQuest Medical Library, Cochrane Library, Web of Science and grey literature were systematically searched for quantitative, qualitative and mixed-methods studies published in English between January 2017 and June 2023. Screening, data extraction and critical appraisal were conducted by two reviewers independently using Covidence™ systematic review software. Data were analysed and synthesised thematically to address the question 'What do we know about access, acceptance and adherence to cancer prehabilitation, particularly among socially deprived and minority ethnic groups?' The protocol is published on PROSPERO CRD42023403776 RESULTS: Searches identified 11,715 records, and 56 studies of variable methodological quality were included: 32 quantitative, 15 qualitative and nine mixed-methods. Analysis identified facilitators and barriers at individual and structural levels, and with interpersonal connections important for prehabilitation access, acceptance and adherence. No study reported analysis of facilitators and barriers to prehabilitation specific to people from ethnic minority communities. One study described health literacy as a barrier to access for people from socioeconomically deprived communities. CONCLUSIONS: There is limited empirical research of barriers and facilitators to inform improvement in equity of access to cancer prehabilitation. IMPLICATIONS FOR CANCER SURVIVORS: To enhance the inclusivity of cancer prehabilitation, adjustments may be needed to accommodate individual characteristics and attention given to structural factors, such as staff training. Interpersonal connections are proposed as a fundamental ingredient for successful prehabilitation.

The promotion of homebased physical activity for people with lung cancer and cachexia, a qualitative study of healthcare professionals, patients and carers.

PURPOSE: There is some evidence of the benefits of physical activity (PA) in patients with lung cancer; however, there is a lack of understanding of acceptable PA for patients with established cachexia and how to facilitate sustainable behaviour change to promote PA. Therefore, this study explored the views of healthcare professionals (HP), patients with lung cancer and cachexia, and their carers on preferences for, barriers and facilitators of homebased PA. METHODS: This qualitative study involved ten telephone interviews with HPs and face-to-face interviews with seven patients with lung cancer and cachexia and their carers. Interviews were transcribed and analysed thematically. The Capability, Opportunity, Motivation and Behaviour (COM-B) model was used as a framework for the thematic cross-group analysis. RESULTS: The types of homebased PA suggested by patients with lung cancer and cachexia (n = 7), their carers (n = 7) and HPs (n = 10) were functional, flexible, individualised and initially of short duration and low intensity. PA was influenced by themes within physical and psychological Capability, physical and social Opportunities as well as automatic and reflective Motivation. CONCLUSION: Based on a behaviour change theory, principles to promote homebased PA were developed. These principles need to be integrated into tools to promote PA in people with lung cancer and weight loss. IMPLICATIONS FOR CANCER SURVIVORS: The application of the proposed principles by clinicians will promote physical activity, enhancing the function and wellbeing of patients with lung cancer and reducing burden on carers.

Systemic comorbidities in bronchiectasis.

Bronchiectasis is a chronic inflammatory lung disease, which has similarities to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Comorbidities of COPD include increased risk of cardiovascular (CV) disease, loss of bone mineral density (BMD) and loss of skeletal muscle mass and function, all linked to systemic inflammation. The potential for such comorbidities has not been explored in bronchiectasis. We hypothesised that patients with bronchiectasis would have similar increased comorbidities. A total of 20 patients with noncystic fibrosis bronchiectasis were compared to 20 controls similar in age, gender and smoking exposure. Assessments included aortic pulse wave velocity (PWV; (a measure of arterial stiffness and an independent predictor of CV risk), blood pressure (BP) as well as levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), albumin, fasting glucose and lipids. Body composition (fat free mass index (FFMI)), BMD, the 6-min walk distance (6MWD) and self-reported physical activity were also determined. Patients with bronchiectasis had increased aortic PWV, 10.5 (3.0) m/second, when compared with controls, 8.8 (1.6) m/second (p < 0.05), despite similar central and peripheral BP and lipid profile. Patients also had increased IL-6 and reduced albumin and glucose. Although mean body mass index, FFMI and BMD were similar in patients and controls, only 20% of patients had a healthy BMD compared with 50% of controls. Patients had reduced 6MWD and reported less physical activity (p < 0.05). Patients with bronchiectasis had increased arterial stiffness (an indicator of increased CV risk), increased inflammation, reduced exercise capacity and bone thinning. These additional comorbidities require further evaluation for their management in these patients.

The Timed Up and Go test predicts frailty in patients with COPD.

The Timed Up and Go (TUG) is a global measure of mobility and has the ability to detect frail individuals. Frail patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are usually undiagnosed. We hypothesised that the TUG would identify frail patients with COPD. Frailty was assessed in 520 patients diagnosed with COPD and 150 controls using a Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment questionnaire and frailty index (FI) was derived. The TUG was used to assess physical mobility. All participants were assessed for lung function and body composition. A ROC curve was used to identify how well TUG discriminates between frail and non-frail patients with COPD. The patients with COPD and controls were similar in age, sex and BMI but the patients with COPD were more frail, mean ± SD FI 0.16 ± 0.08 than controls 0.05 ± 0.03, P < 0.001. Frail patients with COPD had a greater TUG time (11.55 ± 4.03 s) compared to non-frail patients (9.2 ± 1.6 sec), after controlling for age and lung function (F = 15.94, P < 0.001), and both were greater than the controls (8.3 ± 1.2 sec), P < 0.001. The TUG discriminated between frail and non-frail patients with COPD with an area under the curve of 72 (95% CI: 67-76), and a diagnostic odds ratio of 2.67 (95% CI:1.5-4.6), P < 0.001. The TUG showed the ability to discriminate between frail and non-frail patients with COPD, independent of age and severity of the airflow obstruction. The TUG is a simple, easy and quick measure that could be easily applied in restricted settings to screen for frailty in COPD.

Clusters of risk factors in metabolic syndrome and their influence on central blood pressure in a global study.

The effect of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and clusters of its components on central blood pressure (CBP) has not been well characterized. We aimed to describe the effect of MetS and clusters of its components on CBP in a large population and to identify whether this effect differs in men and women. We studied 15,609 volunteers (43% women) from 10 cohorts worldwide who participated in the Metabolic syndrome and Artery REsearch Consortium. MetS was defined according to the NCEP-ATP III criteria (GHTBW, glucose, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglyceride, blood pressure, waist circumference). CBP was measured noninvasively and acquired from pulse wave analysis by applanation tonometry. MetS was associated with a 50% greater odds of having higher CSBP. After controlling for age, male sex, non HDL cholesterol, diabetes mellitus, and mean arterial pressure, only specific clusters of MetS components were associated with a higher CSBP; and some of them were significant in women but not in men. We identified "risky clusters" of MetS variables associated with high CSBP. Future studies are needed to confirm they identify subjects at high risk of accelerated arterial aging and, thus, need more intensive clinical management.

Does pulmonary rehabilitation address cardiovascular risk factors in patients with COPD?

BACKGROUND: Patients with COPD have an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Whilst pulmonary rehabilitation has proven benefit for exercise tolerance and quality of life, any effect on cardiovascular risk has not been fully investigated. We hypothesised that pulmonary rehabilitation, through the exercise and nutritional intervention, would address these factors. METHODS: Thirty-two stable patients with COPD commenced rehabilitation, and were compared with 20 age and gender matched controls at baseline assessment. In all subjects, aortic pulse wave velocity (PWV) an independent non-invasive predictor of cardiovascular risk, blood pressure (BP), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and fasting glucose and lipids were determined. These measures, and the incremental shuttle walk test (ISWT) were repeated in the patients who completed pulmonary rehabilitation. RESULTS: On commencement of rehabilitation aortic PWV was increased in patients compared with controls (p<0.05), despite mean BP, age and gender being similar. The IL-6 was also increased (p<0.05). Twenty-two patients completed study assessments. In these subjects, rehabilitation reduced mean (SD) aortic PWV (9.8 (3.0) to 9.3 (2.7) m/s (p<0.05)), and systolic and diastolic BP by 10 mmHg and 5 mmHg respectively (p<0.01). Total cholesterol and ISWT also improved (p<0.05). On linear regression analysis, the reduction in aortic PWV was attributed to reducing the BP. CONCLUSION: Cardiovascular risk factors including blood pressure and thereby aortic stiffness were improved following a course of standard multidisciplinary pulmonary rehabilitation in patients with COPD.

Cardiovascular and musculskeletal co-morbidities in patients with alpha 1 antitrypsin deficiency.

BACKGROUND: Determining the presence and extent of co-morbidities is fundamental in assessing patients with chronic respiratory disease, where increased cardiovascular risk, presence of osteoporosis and low muscle mass have been recognised in several disease states. We hypothesised that the systemic consequences are evident in a further group of subjects with COPD due to Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency (A1ATD), yet are currently under-recognised. METHODS: We studied 19 patients with PiZZ A1ATD COPD and 20 age, sex and smoking matched controls, all subjects free from known cardiovascular disease. They underwent spirometry, haemodynamic measurements including aortic pulse wave velocity (aPWV), an independent predictor or cardiovascular risk, dual energy X-ray absorptiometry to determine body composition and bone mineral density. RESULTS: The aPWV was greater in patients: 9.9(2.1) m/s than controls: 8.5(1.6) m/s, p = 0.03, despite similar mean arterial pressure (MAP). The strongest predictors of aPWV were age, FEV1% predicted and MAP (all p < 0.01). Osteoporosis was present in 8/19 patients (2/20 controls) and was previously unsuspected in 7 patients. The fat free mass and bone mineral density were lower in patients than controls (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with A1ATD related COPD have increased aortic stiffness suggesting increased risk of cardiovascular disease and evidence of occult musculoskeletal changes, all likely to contribute hugely to overall morbidity and mortality.

Effectiveness of Low to Moderate Physical Exercise Training on the Level of Low-Density Lipoproteins: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Regular exercise reduces risk factors associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD). Elevated low-density lipoprotein (LDL) contributes to atherosclerosis formation, which is associated with an increased risk of CVD. The relationship between exercise therapy and lipid levels has been widely studied, but it is established that high-intensity exercise improves lipid profile. However, the effectiveness of low- to moderate-intensity exercise in altering LDL levels is controversial. This review aims to identify the current evidence and existing gaps in literature in this area. METHODS: We searched and reviewed various randomized controlled clinical trials in the electronic databases EMBASE, CINAHL, the Web of Science, Cochrane, Pedro, Medline (PubMed), and Google Scholar using the keywords "low and moderate aerobic training," "exercise", "low-density lipoproteins," "cholesterol," "atherosclerosis," and "coronary artery diseases markers." We included studies that involved low- and/or moderate-intensity exercise training in apparently healthy adults over a period of 8 weeks and its effect on LDL levels. We selected a total of 11 studies from 469; nine were randomized controlled trials and two were systematic reviews. RESULTS: Aerobic exercise of both low and moderate intensity resulted in a significant reduction of total cholesterol. Effects on low-density lipoprotein levels were significant, and most of the studies showed changes in the level without significant relation to the type of exercise. At the same time, exercise improved the health status and physical fitness of all the participants in the included studies. CONCLUSION: This study found that low- and moderate-intensity exercise and low-density lipoprotein levels were not proven to be significantly related, except in a few studies that were limited to dyslipidemia population.

Surrogate Markers of Cardiovascular Risk and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Large Case-Controlled Study.

Cardiovascular disease is a common comorbidity and cause of mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A better understanding of mechanisms of cardiovascular risk in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients is needed to improve clinical outcomes. We hypothesized that such patients have increased arterial stiffness, wave reflections, and subclinical atherosclerosis compared with controls and that these findings would be independent of smoking status and other confounding factors. A total of 458 patients with a diagnosis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and 1657 controls (43% were current or ex-smokers) with no airflow limitation were matched for age, sex, and body mass index. All individuals underwent assessments of carotid-femoral (aortic) pulse wave velocity, augmentation index, and carotid intima-media thickness. The mean age of the cohort was 67±8 years and 58% were men. Patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease had increased aortic pulse wave velocity (9.95±2.54 versus 9.27±2.41 m/s; P<0.001), augmentation index (28±10% versus 25±10%; P<0.001), and carotid intima-media thickness (0.83±0.19 versus 0.74±0.14 mm; P<0.001) compared with controls. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease was associated with increased levels of each vascular biomarker independently of physiological confounders, smoking, and other cardiovascular risk factors. In this large case-controlled study, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease was associated with increased arterial stiffness, wave reflections, and subclinical atherosclerosis, independently of traditional cardiovascular risk factors. These findings suggest that the cardiovascular burden observed in this condition may be mediated through these mechanisms and supports the concept that chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease.