Control of electron transfer by protein dynamics in photosynthetic reaction centers.

Trehalose and glycerol are low molecular mass sugars/polyols that have found widespread use in the protection of native protein states, in both short- and long-term storage of biological materials, and as a means of understanding protein dynamics. These myriad uses are often attributed to their ability to form an amorphous glassy matrix. In glycerol, the glass is formed only at cryogenic temperatures, while in trehalose, the glass is formed at room temperature, but only upon dehydration of the sample. While much work has been carried out to elucidate a mechanistic view of how each of these matrices interact with proteins to provide stability, rarely have the effects of these two independent systems been directly compared to each other. This review aims to compile decades of research on how different glassy matrices affect two types of photosynthetic proteins: (i) the Type II bacterial reaction center from Rhodobacter sphaeroides and (ii) the Type I Photosystem I reaction center from cyanobacteria. By comparing aggregate data on electron transfer, protein structure, and protein dynamics, it appears that the effects of these two distinct matrices are remarkably similar. Both seem to cause a "tightening" of the solvation shell when in a glassy state, resulting in severely restricted conformational mobility of the protein and associated water molecules. Thus, trehalose appears to be able to mimic, at room temperature, nearly all of the effects on protein dynamics observed in low temperature glycerol glasses.

Generating dihydrogen by tethering an [FeFe]hydrogenase via a molecular wire to the A1A/A1B sites of photosystem I.

Photosystem I complexes from the menB deletion mutant of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 were previously wired to a Pt nanoparticle via a molecular wire consisting of 15-(3-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone-2-yl)]pentadecyl sulfide. In the presence of a sacrificial electron donor and an electron transport mediator, the PS I-NQ(CH2)15S-Pt nanoconstruct generated dihydrogen at a rate of 44.3 µmol of H2 mg Chl-1 h-1 during illumination at pH 8.3. The menB deletion strain contains an interruption in the biosynthetic pathway of phylloquinone, which results in the presence of a displaceable plastoquinone-9 in the A1A/A1B sites. The synthesized quinone contains a headgroup identical to the native phylloquinone along with a 15-carbon long tail that is terminated in a thiol. The thiol on the molecular wire is used to bind the Pt nanoparticle. In this short communication, we replaced the Pt nanoparticle with an [FeFe]H2ase variant from Clostridium acetobutylicum that contains an exposed iron on the distal [4Fe-4S] cluster afforded by mutating the surface exposed Cys97 residue to Gly. The thiol on the molecular wire is then used to coordinate the corner iron atom of the iron-sulfur cluster. When all three components are combined and illuminated in the presence of a sacrificial electron donor and an electron transport mediator, the PS I-NQ(CH2)15S-[FeFe]H2ase nanoconstruct generated dihydrogen at a rate of 50.3 ± 9.96 µmol of H2 mg Chl-1 h-1 during illumination at pH 8.3. This successful in vitro experiment sets the stage for assembling a PS I-NQ(CH2)15S-[FeFe]H2ase nanoconstruct in vivo in the menB mutant of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803.

Ultrafast Energy Transfer Involving the Red Chlorophylls of Cyanobacterial Photosystem I Probed through Two-Dimensional Electronic Spectroscopy.

Photosystem I (PSI) is a naturally occurring light-harvesting complex that drives oxygenic photosynthesis through a series of photoinitiated transmembrane electron transfer reactions that occur with a high quantum efficiency. Understanding the mechanism by which this process occurs is fundamental to understanding the near-unity quantum efficiency of PSI and in turn could lead to further insight into PSI-based technologies for solar energy conversion. In this article, we have applied two-dimensional electronic spectroscopy to PSI complexes isolated from two different cyanobacterial strains to gain further insight into the ultrafast energy transfer in PSI. The PSI complexes studied differ in the number and absorption of the red chlorophylls, chlorophylls that lie to lower energies than the reaction center. By applying a global analysis to the 2D electronic spectra of the PSI complexes we extract 2D decay associated spectra (2D-DAS). Through analysis of the 2D-DAS we observe a 50 fs relaxation among the bulk antenna chlorophylls in addition to two pathways of energy equilibration involving the red chlorophylls: a fast 200 fs equilibration followed by a 2-4 ps equilibration. As demonstrated with a model system, the λ1, λ3 coordinates of the cross-peaks in the 2D-DAS spectra indicate that the two equilibration pathways involve different chlorophyll molecules.

Light-mediated hydrogen generation in Photosystem I: attachment of a naphthoquinone-molecular wire-Pt nanoparticle to the A1A and A1B sites.

The molecular wire-appended naphthoquinone 1-[15-(3-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone-2-yl)]pentadecyl disulfide [(NQ(CH2)15S)2] has been incorporated into the A1A and A1B sites of Photosystem I (PS I) in the menB variant of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Transient electron paramagnetic resonance studies show that the naphthoquinone headgroup displaces plastoquinone-9 from the A1A (and likely A1B) sites to a large extent. When a Pt nanoparticle is attached to the molecular wire by reductive cleavage of the disulfide and reaction with the resulting thiol, the PS I-NQ(CH2)15S-Pt nanoconstruct evolves dihydrogen at a rate of 67.3 µmol of H2 (mg of Chl)(-1) h(-1) [3.4 e(-) (PS I)(-1) s(-1)] after illumination for 1 h at pH 6.4. No dihydrogen is detected if wild-type PS I, which does not incorporate the quinone, is used or if either (NQ(CH2)15S)2 or the Pt nanoparticle is absent. Time-resolved optical studies of the PS I-NQ(CH2)15S-Pt nanoconstruct show that the lifetimes of the forward electron transfer to and reverse electron transfer from the iron-sulfur clusters are the same as in native PS I. Thus, electrons are not shuttled directly from the quinone to the Pt nanoparticle during either forward or reverse electron transfer. It is found that the rate of dihydrogen evolution in the PS I-NQ(CH2)15S-Pt nanoconstruct depends strongly on the concentration the sacrificial electron donor cytochrome c6. These observations can be explained if the iron-sulfur clusters are involved in stabilizing the electron; the ~50 ms residence time of the electron on FA or FB is sufficiently long to allow cytochrome c6 to reduce P700(+), thereby eliminating the recombination channel. In the absence of P700(+), slow electron transfer through the molecular wire to the Pt catalyst can occur, and hence, H2 evolution is observed.

Shedding Light on Primary Donors in Photosynthetic Reaction Centers.

Chlorophylls (Chl)s exist in a variety of flavors and are ubiquitous in both the energy and electron transfer processes of photosynthesis. The functions they perform often occur on the ultrafast (fs-ns) time scale and until recently, these have been difficult to measure in real time. Further, the complexity of the binding pockets and the resulting protein-matrix effects that alter the respective electronic properties have rendered theoretical modeling of these states difficult. Recent advances in experimental methodology, computational modeling, and emergence of new reaction center (RC) structures have renewed interest in these processes and allowed researchers to elucidate previously ambiguous functions of Chls and related pheophytins. This is complemented by a wealth of experimental data obtained from decades of prior research. Studying the electronic properties of Chl molecules has advanced our understanding of both the nature of the primary charge separation and subsequent electron transfer processes of RCs. In this review, we examine the structures of primary electron donors in Type I and Type II RCs in relation to the vast body of spectroscopic research that has been performed on them to date. Further, we present density functional theory calculations on each oxidized primary donor to study both their electronic properties and our ability to model experimental spectroscopic data. This allows us to directly compare the electronic properties of hetero- and homodimeric RCs.

Two-dimensional HYSCORE spectroscopy reveals a histidine imidazole as the axial ligand to Chl3A in the M688HPsaA genetic variant of Photosystem I.

Recent studies on Photosystem I (PS I) have shown that the six core chlorophyll a molecules are highly coupled, allowing for efficient creation and stabilization of the charge-separated state. One area of particular interest is the identity and function of the primary acceptor, A0, as the factors that influence its ultrafast processes and redox properties are not yet fully elucidated. It was recently shown that A0 exists as a dimer of the closely-spaced Chl2/Chl3 molecules wherein the reduced A0- state has an asymmetric distribution of electron spin density that favors Chl3. Previous experimental work in which this ligand was changed to a hard base (histidine, M688HPsaA) revealed severely impacted electron transfer processes at both the A0 and A1 acceptors; molecular dynamics simulations further suggested two distinct conformations of PS I in which the His residue coordinates and forms a hydrogen bond to the A0 and A1 cofactors, respectively. In this study, we have applied 2D HYSCORE spectroscopy in conjunction with molecular dynamics simulations and density functional theory calculations to the study of the M688HPsaA variant. Analysis of the hyperfine parameters demonstrates that the His imidazole serves as the axial ligand to the central Mg2+ ion in Chl3A in the M688HPsaA variant. Although the change in ligand identity does not alter delocalization of electron density over the Chl2/Chl3 dimer, a small shift in the asymmetry of delocalization, coupled with the electron withdrawing properties of the ligand, most likely accounts for the inhibition of forward electron transfer in the His-ligated conformation.

A dimeric chlorophyll electron acceptor differentiates type I from type II photosynthetic reaction centers.

This research addresses one of the most compelling issues in the field of photosynthesis, namely, the role of the accessory chlorophyll molecules in primary charge separation. Using a combination of empirical and computational methods, we demonstrate that the primary acceptor of photosystem (PS) I is a dimer of accessory and secondary chlorophyll molecules, Chl2A and Chl3A, with an asymmetric electron charge density distribution. The incorporation of highly coupled donors and acceptors in PS I allows for extensive delocalization that prolongs the lifetime of the charge-separated state, providing for high quantum efficiency. The discovery of this motif has widespread implications ranging from the evolution of naturally occurring reaction centers to the development of a new generation of highly efficient artificial photosynthetic systems.

Multiple pathways of charge recombination revealed by the temperature dependence of electron transfer kinetics in cyanobacterial photosystem I.

The kinetics of charge recombination in Photosystem I P700-FA/FB complexes and P700-FX cores lacking the terminal iron­sulfur clusters were studied over a temperatures range of 310 K to 4.2 K. Analysis of the charge recombination kinetics in this temperature range allowed the assignment of backward electron transfer from the different electron acceptors to P700+. The kinetic and thermodynamic parameters of these recombination reactions were determined. The kinetics of all electron transfer reactions were activation-less below 170 K, the glass transition temperature of the water-glycerol solution. Above this temperature, recombination from [FA/FB]- in P700-FA/FB complexes was found to proceed along two pathways with different activation energies (Ea). The charge recombination via A1A has an Ea of ~290 meV and is dominant at temperatures above ~280 K, whereas the direct recombination from FX- has an Ea of 22 meV and is prevalent in the 200 K to 270 K temperature range. Charge recombination from the FX cluster becomes highly heterogeneous at temperatures below 200 K. The conformational mobility of Photosystem I was studied by molecular dynamics simulations. The FX cluster was found to 'swing' by ~30° along the axis between the two sulfur atoms proximal to FA/FB. The partial rotation of FX is accompanied by significant changes of electric potential within the iron­sulfur cluster, which may induce preferential electron localization at different atoms of the FX cluster. These effects may account for the partial arrest of forward electron transfer and for the heterogeneity of charge recombination observed at the glass transition temperature.

Critical evaluation of electron transfer kinetics in P700-FA/FB, P700-FX, and P700-A1 Photosystem I core complexes in liquid and in trehalose glass.

This work aims to fully elucidate the effects of a trehalose glassy matrix on electron transfer reactions in cyanobacterial Photosystem I (PS I). Forward and backward electron transfer rates from A1A- and A1B- to FX, and charge recombination rates from A0-, A1B-, A1A-, FX-, and [FA/FB]- to P700+ were measured in P700-FA/FB complexes, P700-FX cores, and P700-A1 cores, both in liquid and in a trehalose glassy matrix at 11% humidity. By comparing CONTIN-resolved kinetic events over 6 orders of time in increasingly simplified versions of PS I at 480 nm, a wavelength that reports primarily A1A-/A1B- oxidation, and over 9 orders of time at 830 nm, a wavelength that reports P700+ reduction and A0- oxidation, assignments could be made for nearly all of the resolved kinetic phases. Trehalose-embedded PS I samples demonstrated partially arrested forward electron transfer. The fractions of complexes in which electron transfer did not proceed beyond A0, A1 and FX were 53%, 16% and 22%, respectively, with only 10% of electrons reaching the terminal FA/FB clusters. The ~10 µs and ~150 µs components in both liquid and trehalose-embedded PS I were assigned to recombination between A1B- and P700+ and between A1A- and P700+, respectively. The kinetics and amplitudes of these resolved kinetic phases in liquid and trehalose-embedded PS I samples could be well-fitted by a kinetic model that allowed us to calculate the asymmetrical contribution of the A1A- and A1B- quinones to the electrochromic signal at 480 nm. Possible reasons for these effects are discussed.

Electron transfer from the A1A and A1B sites to a tethered Pt nanoparticle requires the FeS clusters for suppression of the recombination channel.

In this work, a previously described model of electron withdrawal from the A1A/A1B sites of Photosystem I (PS I) was tested using a dihydrogen-producing PS I-NQ(CH2)15S-Pt nanoconstruct. According to this model, the rate of electron transfer from A1A/A1B to a tethered Pt nanoparticle is kinetically unfavorable relative to the rate of forward electron transfer to the FeS clusters. Dihydrogen is produced only when an external donor rapidly reduces P700(+), thereby suppressing the recombination channel and allowing the electron in the FeS clusters to proceed via uphill electron transfer through the A1A/A1B quinones to the Pt nanoparticle. We tested this model by sequentially removing the FeS clusters, FB, FA, and FX, and determining the concentration of cytochrome c6 (Cyt c6) at which the backreaction was outcompeted and dihydrogen production was observed. P700-FA cores were generated in a menB insertionally inactivated strain by removing FB with HgCl2; P700-FX cores were generated in a menB psaC insertionally inactivated strain that lacks FA and FB, and P700-A1 cores were generated in a menB rubA insertionally inactivated strain that lacks FX, FA and FB. Quinone incorporation was measured using transient electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy and time resolved optical spectroscopy. Cyt c6 was titrated into each of these PS I preparations and the kinetics of P700(+) reduction were measured. A similar experiment was carried out on PS I-NQ(CH2)15S-Pt nanoconstructs assembled from these PS I preparations. This study showed that the concentration of Cyt c6 needed to produce dihydrogen was comparable to that needed to suppress the backreaction. We conclude that the FeS clusters serve to 'park' the electron and thereby extend the duration of the charge-separated state; however, in doing so, the redox advantage of removing the electron at A1A/A1B is lost.