Neutral endopeptidase inhibitors potentiate substance P- and capsaicin-induced cough in awake guinea pigs.

To study the roles of substance P and endogenous neutral endopeptidase in mediating cough, we measured cough responses in awake guinea pigs in response to exogenous substance P and capsaicin aerosols in the presence and absence of the neutral endopeptidase inhibitors leucine-thiorphan and phosphoramidon. Substance P stimulated cough in very low concentrations (10(-17)-10(-16) M). In a second study where the investigator did not know whether substance P or diluent alone was aerosolized, substance P (10(-16) M) caused cough. Leucine-thiorphan (10(-5) M) and phosphoramidon (10(-5) M) potentiated substance P-induced cough; NEP inhibitors also potentiated capsaicin-induced cough significantly. These findings suggest that substance P is a potent stimulator of cough responses, that capsaicin-induced cough is mediated by substance P or another similar neuropeptide, and that cough responses are modulated by endogenous neutral endopeptidase.

Mast cell chymase potentiates histamine-induced wheal formation in the skin of ragweed-allergic dogs.

Skin mast cells release the neutral protease chymase along with histamine during degranulation. To test the hypothesis that chymase modulates histamine-induced plasma extravasation, we measured wheal formation following intradermal injection of purified mast cell chymase and histamine into the skin of ragweed-allergic dogs. We found that chymase greatly augments histamine-induced wheal formation. The magnitude of the potentiating effect increases with increasing doses of chymase and becomes maximal approximately 30 min after administration. Injection of chymase without histamine does not evoke wheal formation. The chymase potentiation of histamine-induced skin responses is prevented completely by pretreatment with the H1-receptor antagonist pyrilamine, and is prevented by inactivation of chymase with soybean trypsin inhibitor, suggesting that both histamine and preserved catalytic activity are required for the effects of chymase. To examine the effects of histamine and chymase released in situ in further experiments, we measured wheal size following local degranulation of mast cells by intradermal injection of ragweed antigen or compound 48/80. We found that pretreatment with either soybean trypsin inhibitor or pyrilamine markedly reduces ragweed antigen- or 48/80-induced wheal formation, supporting the results obtained by injection of exogenous chymase and histamine. These findings suggest a novel and important proinflammatory role for chymase in modulating the effects of histamine on vascular permeability during mast cell activation.

Role of kinins in anaphylactic-induced bronchoconstriction mediated by tachykinins in guinea-pigs.

1. In the present study, we have investigated the role of kinins in allergen-induced bronchoconstriction. 2. Anaesthetized guinea-pigs were sensitized to ovalbumin, ventilated artificially, pretreated with atropine (1.4 mumol kg-1, i.v.) and total pulmonary resistance (RL) measured. In preliminary studies in the presence of the neutral endopeptidase inhibitor, phosphoramidon (4.5 mumol kg-1, i.v.), the bradykinin B2 receptor antagonist Hoe 140 (0.1 mumol kg-1, i.v.) completely abolished the increase in RL following aerosolized bradykinin (1 mM, 40 breaths), but had no effect on the increase in RL following aerosolized neurokinin A (NKA, 10 microM, 40 breaths). On the other hand, a combination of the NK1 (CP-96,345, 2 mumol kg-1, i.v.) and NK2 (SR 48968, 0.3 mumol kg-1, i.v.) tachykinin receptor antagonists abolished completely the increase in RL produced by NKA and partially inhibited the increase in RL produced by bradykinin. These results confirm previous studies that suggest that bradykinin induces the release of tachykinins from sensory nerves in guinea-pig airways. 3. Aerosolized ovalbumin (0.5%, 5 breaths) increased RL in sensitized guinea-pigs pretreated with atropine (1.4 mmol kg-1, i.v.), an effect that began within 2 min and reached a maximum within 5 min; RL remained above baseline at 20 min. Pretreatment with the bradykinin B2 receptor antagonist, Hoe 140, decreased the bronchoconstrictor effect of ovalbumin markedly at 10 to 20 min. In the presence of phosphoramidon (4.5 mumol kg-1, i.v.) the inhibition induced by Hoe 140 was apparent earlier and remained over the 20 min period of study. 4. Pretreatment with a combination of NK1 (CP-96,345) and NK2 (SR 48968) tachykinin receptor antagonists also markedly inhibited ovalbumin-induced bronchoconstriction; addition of the bradykinin B2 receptor antagonist to the NK1 and NK2 tachykinin receptor antagonists had no additional inhibitory effect on antigen-induced bronchoconstriction.5. These findings confirm that activation of sensory nerves to release tachykinins in guinea-pig airways contribute to antigen-induced bronchoconstriction, and provide evidence that tachykinin release is due to kinins generated during the allergic response.

Somatostatin potentiates cholinergic neurotransmission in ferret trachea.

We studied the effect of somatostatin on contractile responses to electrical field stimulation (EFS) in isolated ferret tracheal segments. Somatostatin (up to 10(-5) M) did not change resting tension, but it potentiated the contractile response to EFS dose dependently, with a maximum effect at 10(-6) M. Thus, at a concentration of 10(-6) M, somatostatin significantly decreased the mean log of EFS frequency producing 50% of maximum contraction from a control value of 0.52 +/- 0.07 to 0.24 +/- 0.06 (SE) Hz (P less than 0.01). The potentiating effect of somatostatin (10(-6) M) was not inhibited by hexamethonium, indomethacin, BW755C, pyrilamine, methysergide, or D,Pro2,D,Trp7,9-SP, but it was inhibited by atropine or by the somatostatin antagonist cyclo[7-aminoheptanoyl-Phe-D-Trp-Lys-Thr(Bzl)]. In contrast to EFS-induced contraction, contractions produced by acetylcholine (10(-9) to 10(-3) M) were not affected by somatostatin at a concentration of 10(-6) M. These results suggest that somatostatin potentiates contractions produced by EFS via presynaptic cholinergic mechanisms and probably through a specific somatostatin receptor.

Modulation of cholinergic neurotransmission by vasoactive intestinal peptide in ferret trachea.

We studied the effect of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) on the contractile responses to electrical field stimulation (EFS) in isolated ferret tracheal segments. VIP did not change resting tension up to 2 X 10(-7) M, but it showed a biphasic effect on the responses to EFS. In concentrations up to 10(-9) M, VIP potentiated the response; at higher concentrations VIP reduced responses. Thus, at a concentration of 10(-9) M, VIP decreased the mean (+/- SE) log EFS frequency, producing 50% of maximum contraction significantly from a control value of 0.476 +/- 0.062 to 0.214 +/- 0.057 Hz (P less than 0.01); at a concentration of 2 X 10(-7) M VIP increased the half-maximal frequency from a control value of 0.513 +/- 0.086 to 0.752 +/- 0.053 Hz (P less than 0.05). The potentiating effect of VIP (10(-9) M) was not inhibited by hexamethonium, indomethacin, pyrilamine, methysergide, or [D-Pro2,D-Trp7,9] substance P. The inhibitory effect of VIP (2 X 10(-7) M) was also not inhibited by hexamethonium, indomethacin, or naloxone. In contrast to EFS-induced contraction, contractions produced by acetylcholine (10(-9) to 10(-3) M) were not affected by VIP at concentrations of 10(-9) and 2 X 10(-7) M. These results suggest that VIP modulates contractions produced by EFS via presynaptic cholinergic mechanisms and probably through a specific VIP receptor.

Cholinergic neuromodulation by prostaglandin D2 in canine airway smooth muscle.

To determine whether prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) modulates cholinergic neurotransmission in airway smooth muscle and, if so, what the mechanism of action is, we studied bronchial segments from dogs under isometric conditions in vitro. PGD2 (10(-8)-10(-5) M) elicited dose-dependent muscle contraction, which was reduced after blockade of muscarinic receptors, so that 50% effective dose (ED50) increased from 1.3 +/- 0.3 X 10(-6) to 3.9 +/- 1.0 X 10(-6) M by atropine (10(-6) M) (mean +/- SE, P less than 0.05). Physostigmine, at a concentration insufficient to alter base-line tension (10(-8) M), enhanced the PGD2-induced contraction and decreased ED50 to 6.4 +/- 0.5 X 10(-7) M (P less than 0.05). When added at the highest doses that did not cause spontaneous contraction (1.9 +/- 0.5 X 10(-7) M), PGD2 increased the contractile response to electrical field stimulation (1-50 Hz) by 21.9 +/- 6.6% (P less than 0.001). In contrast to this effect, the response to administered acetylcholine was not affected by PGD2. On the other hand, PGD2-induced augmentation of the response to electrical field stimulation (5 Hz) was further increased from 23.6 +/- 3.0 to 70.4 +/- 8.8% in the presence of physostigmine (10(-8) M) and was abolished by atropine but not affected by the alpha-adrenergic antagonist phentolamine or the histamine H1-blocker pyrilamine. These results suggest that the contraction of airway smooth muscle induced by PGD2 is in in part mediated by a cholinergic action and that PGD2 prejunctionally augments the parasympathetic contractile response, likely involving the accelerated release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction.

An in vivo chemotaxis assay in the dog trachea: evidence for chemotactic activity of 8,15-diHETE.

We describe a new in vivo chemotaxis assay in the dog trachea using a double-balloon endotracheal catheter. When inflated, the two balloons isolate a segment of trachea, which is perfused through Silastic tubes using a peristaltic pump. After instilling a chemotactic agent, the perfusate is sampled periodically to permit characterization of the chemotactic response. We anesthetized four mongrel dogs and ventilated them mechanically through the double-balloon catheter. Two mediators, leukotriene B4 (LTB4) and 8S,15S-dihydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (8,15-diHETE) were tested in each dog by perfusing the trachea with each mediator in Hanks' balanced salt solution (HBSS) containing ethanol and antibiotics. Aliquots were removed for differential cell counts at fixed time intervals over a 4-h period. Control experiments performed in each dog with the identical concentrations of ethanol and antibiotics in HBSS showed no cellular response before 180 min. At 240 min, the cell counts were 86 +/- 28 (SE) granulocytes/microliter (n = 4). In contrast, both LTB4 and 8,15-diHETE gave a significant cellular response at 120 min (309 +/- 125 and 141 +/- 41 granulocytes/microliter, respectively; P less than 0.05) but did not differ significantly from each other. These results suggest that both LTB4 and 8,15-diHETE can incite inflammatory responses in the dog trachea in vivo. Furthermore, the double-balloon catheter technique promises to be a useful in vivo chemotaxis assay.

Airway neutral endopeptidase-like enzyme modulates tachykinin-induced bronchoconstriction in vivo.

To determine whether neutral endopeptidase (NEP), also called enkephalinase (EC 3.4.24.11), modulates the effects of exogenous and endogenous tachykinins in vivo, we studied the effects of aerosolized phosphoramidon, a specific NEP inhibitor, on the responses to aerosolized substance P (SP) and on the atropine-resistant response to vagus nerve stimulation (10 V, 5 ms for 20 s) in guinea pigs. SP alone (10(-7) to 10(-4) M; each concentration, 7 breaths) caused no change in total pulmonary resistance (RL, P greater than 0.5). Phosphoramidon (10(-4) M, 90 breaths) caused no change either in base-line RL (P greater than 0.5) or in the response to aerosolized acetylcholine (P greater than 0.5). However, in the presence of phosphoramidon, SP (7 breaths) produced a concentration-dependent increase in RL at concentrations greater than or equal to 10(-5) M (P less than 0.001). Phosphoramidon (10(-7) to 10(-4) M; each concentration, 90 breaths) induced a concentration-dependent potentiation of SP-induced bronchoconstriction (10(-4) M, 7 breaths; P less than 0.01). Vagus nerve stimulation (0.5-3 Hz), in the presence of atropine, induced a frequency-dependent increase in RL (P less than 0.001). Phosphoramidon potentiated the atropine-resistant responses to vagus nerve stimulation (P less than 0.001) at frequencies greater than 0.5 Hz. The tachykinin antagonist [D-Arg1,D-Pro2,D-Trp7,9,Leu11]-substance P abolished the effects of phosphoramidon on the atropine-resistant response to vagus nerve stimulation (2 Hz, P less than 0.005). NEP-like activity in tracheal homogenates of guinea pig was inhibited by phosphoramidon with a concentration producing 50% inhibition of 5.3 +/- 0.8 nM.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Prostaglandin D2 causes accumulation of eosinophils in the lumen of the dog trachea.

Prostaglandin D2 (PGD2), the major product of arachidonic acid metabolism via the cyclooxygenase pathway in most mast cells, is present in the airways of atopic asthmatic patients after antigen challenge. Because eosinophilia is characteristic of asthma, we asked whether PGD2 causes eosinophils to accumulate in the airways in vivo. Using an endotracheal tube with two inflatable balloons we isolated a segment of trachea in four anesthetized mechanically ventilated dogs, and we superfused this segment with either a control solution (Hanks' balanced salt solution and antibiotics) or solution containing PGD2 (10(-6) M). Total and differential cell counts were determined at base line and every hour for 4 h during the study. PGD2 caused eosinophil accumulation in the trachea [7.0 +/- 3.4, 28.7 +/- 17.8, 33.7 +/- 13.6, and 35.4 +/- 10.7 (SD) cells/cm2 trachea after 1, 2, 3, and 4 h, respectively, P less than 0.05 vs. controls] but had no significant effect on neutrophil accumulation. The effect of PGD2 on eosinophil accumulation was significantly inhibited by the prostaglandin receptor antagonist SKF 88046 (5 mg/kg iv). We conclude that PGD2 is a selective stimulus that causes accumulation of eosinophils in the tracheal lumen of dogs in vivo.

Platelet aggregation increases cholinergic neurotransmission in canine airway.

To determine whether thromboxane A2 released from aggregating platelets increases the contractile response of airway smooth muscle to cholinergic nerve stimulation and, if so, what the mechanism of action is, we studied in vitro bronchial segments from dogs under isometric conditions. The contractile responses to electrical field stimulation at 30 s and 1 min after the addition of autologous platelets were increased by 11.1 +/- 3.2 (SD) and 20.7 +/- 5.4%, respectively, and were accompanied by the release of thromboxane A2. These effects were inhibited either by pretreatment of platelets with indomethacin or by addition of the thromboxane A2 receptor antagonist SQ 29548. Likewise, the thromboxane A2 mimetic U 46619, in subthreshold doses (i.e., insufficient to increase base-line tension), increased electrical field stimulation-induced contraction by 18.7 +/- 4.8%. The increase was greater in the presence of a concentration of physostigmine that did not cause spontaneous contraction and was blocked by SQ 29548 but not by hexamethonium or by phentolamine. Methacholine-induced contractions were unaffected by U 46619. These results indicate that aggregating platelets, by releasing thromboxane A2, increase the airway contractile response to neural stimulation probably by the accelerated release of acetylcholine.

Modulation of cholinergic neurotransmission in canine airways by thromboxane mimetic U46619.

We studied the effect of a thromboxane A2-mimetic, U46619, on the contractile responses of canine bronchial smooth muscle to cholinergic stimulation in vitro. U46619 (3 X 10(-10) M), at a concentration that did not cause contraction, enhanced the effect of electrical field stimulation at all frequencies; histamine (10(-7) M) and prostaglandin F2 alpha (10(-7) M) did not. U46619 (3 X 10(-10) M) did not affect methacholine-induced contractions. U46619 may therefore increase the prejunctional release of acetylcholine.

Bronchial smooth muscle responses evoked by toluene diisocyanate are inhibited by ruthenium red and by indomethacin.

We have investigated the ability of ruthenium red, an inorganic dye with Ca2+ entry-blocking properties and a selective antagonist of capsaicin, and of indomethacin, a cyclooxygenase inhibitor, to inhibit bronchial smooth muscle responses evoked by toluene diisocyanate in guinea pigs. Previous exposure of isolated guinea pig bronchi to ruthenium red significantly decreased the response produced by toluene diisocyanate. Further, the response to toluene diisocyanate was significantly decreased by pretreatment with indomethacin. These findings provide evidence that toluene diisocyanate-induced contractions of guinea pig bronchi are produced indirectly by generation of a prostanoid that activates capsaicin-sensitive afferents via a ruthenium red-sensitive mechanism.

Effect of macrophage stimulation on parasympathetic airway contraction in dogs.

The effect of lung macrophages stimulated with calcium ionophore on parasympathetic contractile response of canine bronchial rings was studied. Macrophages augmented the contraction induced by electrical field stimulation, an effect that was inhibited by indomethacin and by SQ29548, a thromboxane A2 receptor antagonist, but had no effect on the contractile response to exogenous acetylcholine. These results suggest that macrophage-derived thromboxane A2 facilitates cholinergic neurotransmission prejunctionally in airway smooth muscle.

Bronchial reactivity: interaction between vagal stimulation and inhaled histamine.

The interaction between the effects of vagal stimulation and inhaled histamine on the bronchi was studied in anesthetized dogs. Reactivity was assessed by measuring changes in bronchial caliber visualized with tantalum bronchograms. In seven vagotomized dogs the bronchoconstrictor response to a combination of electrical stimulation of the vagus nerves and inhaled histamine solution produced a mean reduction in airway diameter (Daw) of 2.21 mm which was significantly greater than the additive results of the two stimuli applied separately (mean decrease in Daw 0.29 +/- 0.91 mm). In three dogs the effect of vagal stimulation was to produce a shift in the dose-response curve to inhaled histamine. These results indicate that the effect of the base-line bronchomotor tone must be considered in the evaluation of the effect of vagal blockade on airway reactivity. An increase in the resting degree of bronchomotor tone may contribute to the hyperreactivity observed in patients with asthma.

Effect of vagal tone on airway diameters and on lung volume in anesthetized dogs.

In 18 open-chest dogs we obtained pressure-diameter (P-D) curves from tantalum bronchograms and pressure-volume (P-V) curves by plethysmography. After vagotomy most of the decrease in diameter with decreasing transpulmonary pressure (Ptp) occured below 10 cmH2O and there was no P-D hysteresis. Smaller airways narrowed more with decreasing Ptp than larger ones. Bronchodilators did not increase diameters after vagotomy (P less than 0.2). With vagi intact, diameters were smaller at all Ptp (P less than 0.01) and exhibited hysteresis, but the lung P-V curve was unchanged. Vagal stimulation narrowed airways further at all Ptp and hysteresis was marked. Smaller airways narrowed more with vagal stimulation than larger ones. Vagal stimulation did not change the deflation limb of the P-V curve but decreased inflation volumes slightly at all Ptp (P less than 0.01). We conclude that in vivo tone is vagal and that it affects the physical properties of airways, but not of lungs, making the airways remarkably independent from lung parenchyma.

The influence of bronchial smooth muscle tone on critical narrowing of dependent airways.

Critical narrowing of the dependent airways was examined in anaesthetized dogs with closed chests. Two techniques were used, (a) "closing" volume (CV), measured from the expired nitrogen plateau and (b) tantalum bronchography, to measure the calibre of airways of 3-8 mm diameter in the upper (UZ), middle (MZ) and lower (LZ) zones. The point of airway "closure" at the junction of phases III and IV of the alveolar plateau coincided with an inflection in the diameter-lung volume curve of the airways in the most basal zone of the lung. This was accompanied by a sudden large increase in the calculated resistance of the airways in LZ compared with UZ. Following stimulation of the vagi CV increased and there was increased narrowing of airways, particularly in LZ. The addition of 0.5% halothane to the anaesthetic abolished the effect of vagal stimulation on CV and on airway resistance.