Ebola virus secreted glycoprotein decreases the anti-viral immunity of macrophages in early inflammatory responses.

During Ebola virus (EBOV) infection, secreted glycoprotein (sGP) is found in large quantities in the serum of both patients and infected animal models. It is thought to serve as a decoy for anti-EBOV antibodies. Using an in vitro model incorporating treatment of non-infected human THP-1 macrophages with recombinant EBOV sGP, this study sought to examine the impact of sGP upon key macrophage functions. Macrophage polarization and phagocytic capacity of activated macrophages were found to be unaltered by sGP treatment. However, treatment with sGP inhibited macrophage production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNFα and IL-6 while the yield of anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-10, remained intact. Interestingly, the migratory ability of macrophages was also diminished by sGP, potentially due to a decrease in expression of CD11b, a vital macrophage integrin. Thus, EBOV sGP may operate to diminish functional contributions of non-infected macrophages to increase the potential viral dissemination.

A Narrative Review on the Viability of Osteopathic Manipulative Medicine in Treating Irritable Bowel Syndrome With Constipation (IBS-C).

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a functional gastrointestinal disorder characterized by chronic abdominal pain and alterations in bowel habits, with global prevalence. The etiology of the disease is likely multifactorial; however, autonomic nervous system (ANS) dysfunction and immune-mediated inflammation may contribute the most to the hallmark symptoms of abdominal pain and altered motility of the gut. Current pharmacological therapies operate to modulate intestinal transit, alter the composition of the gut flora and control pain. Non-pharmacological approaches include dietary changes, increased physical activity, or fecal microbiota transplants. None of these therapies can modulate ANS dysfunction or impact the underlying inflammation that is likely perpetuating the symptoms of IBS. Osteopathic Manipulative Medicine (OMM) is a clinical approach focused on physical manipulation of the body's soft tissues to correct somatic dysfunctions. OMM can directly target the pathophysiology of IBS through many approaches such as ANS modulation and lymphatic techniques to modify the inflammatory mechanisms within the body. Particular OMM techniques of use are lymphatic manipulation, myofascial release, sympathetic ganglia treatment, sacral rocking, counterstrain, and viscerosomatic treatment. The aim of this study is to identify OMM treatments that can be used to potentially reduce the inflammation and ANS dysfunction associated with IBS symptoms, thereby providing a new non-pharmacological targeted approach for treating the disease.

Use of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-11 to reverse HIV-1gp120 repression of a natural killer cell line.

Enhancing natural killer (NK) cell activation has been associated with protection from human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) infections and slowed onset of immunodeficiency. However, soluble HIV-1 envelope protein, gp120, has been shown to impair NK cell cytokine secretion and cell-mediated cytotoxicity. Here we show that gp120 suppressed IFN-γ production and cytotoxic function of a human NK cell line NK-92MI. We furthermore demonstrated that an anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-11 can restore effector functions to repressed NK-92MI cells. These studies support the notion that IL-11 administration may reduce HIV-1-mediated immune activation and exhaustion while achieving elimination of virally-infected cells through restored NK cell function.

Mechanisms of spatial and temporal development of autoimmune vitiligo in tyrosinase-specific TCR transgenic mice.

Generalized vitiligo is thought to have an autoimmune etiology and has been correlated with the presence of CD8 T cells specific for melanocyte differentiation Ag. However, limited animal models for the disease have hampered its understanding. Thus, we generated TCR transgenic mice that recognize an epitope of the melanocyte protein, tyrosinase. These animals develop vitiligo with strikingly similar characteristics to the human disease. Vitiligo develops temporally and spatially, with juvenile lesions forming bilaterally in head and facial areas, and only arising later in the body of adult animals. Vitiligo is entirely dependent on CD8 T cells, whereas CD4 T cells exert a negative regulatory effect. Importantly, CD8 T cells can be pervasively present in the skin in the steady state without inducing vitiligo in most areas. This points to developmental differences in melanocyte susceptibility and/or immunological effector mechanisms over time, or in different body locations. Disease is strongly dependent on both IFN-gamma and CXCR3, whereas dependence on CCR5 is more limited, and both CCR4 and perforin are dispensable. Genetic ablation of CXCR3 or IFN-gamma also resulted in scarce CD8 T cell infiltration into the skin. Our results identify unexpected complexity in vitiligo development and point toward possible therapeutic interventions.

Model Systems for the Study of Malignant Melanoma.

Since the first resection of melanoma by Hunter in 1787, efforts to treat patients with this deadly malignancy have been ongoing. Initial work to understand melanoma biology for therapeutics development began with the employment of isolated cancer cells grown in cell cultures. However, these models lack in vivo interactions with the tumor microenvironment. Melanoma cell line transplantation into suitable animals such as mice has been informative and useful for testing therapeutics as a preclinical model. Injection of freshly isolated patient melanomas into immunodeficient animals has shown the capacity to retain the genetic heterogeneity of the tumors, which is lost during the long-term culture of melanoma cells. Upon advancement of technology, genetically engineered animals have been generated to study the spontaneous development of melanomas in light of newly discovered genetic aberrations associated with melanoma formation. Culturing melanoma cells in a matrix generate tumor spheroids, providing an in vitro environment that promotes the heterogeneity commonplace with human melanoma and displaces the need for animal care facilities. Advanced 3D cultures have been created simulating the structure and cellularity of human skin to permit in vitro testing of therapeutics on melanomas expressing the same phenotype as demonstrated in vivo. This review will discuss these models and their relevance to the study of melanomagenesis, growth, metastasis, and therapy.

Implications of microgravity-induced cell signaling alterations upon cancer cell growth, invasiveness, metastatic potential, and control by host immunity.

The human endeavor to venture beyond the orbit of Earth is challenged by both continuous space radiation and microgravity-induced immune dysfunction. If cancers were to develop in astronauts, it is unclear how these abnormal cells would grow and progress in the microgravity environment. It is unknown if the astronaut's immune response would be able to control or eradicate cancer. A better molecular understanding of how the mechanical force of gravity affects the cell as well as the aggressiveness of cancers and the functionality of host immunity is needed. This review will summarize findings related to microgravity-mediated alterations in the cell cytoskeleton, cell-cell, and cell-extracellular matrix interactions including cadherins, immunoglobulin superfamily of adhesion molecules, selectins, and integrins and related cell signaling. The effects of spaceflight and simulated microgravity on cell viability, cancer cell growth, invasiveness, angiogenesis, metastasis as well as immune cell functions and the subsequent signaling pathways involved will be discussed. Microgravity-induced alterations in function and signaling of the major anti-cancer immune populations will be examined including natural killer cells, dendritic cells, CD4+ T cells, and CD8+ T cells. Further studies regarding the molecular events impacted by microgravity in both cancer and immune cells will greatly increase the development of therapies to restrict tumor growth and enhance cancer-specific responses for both astronauts and patients on Earth.

On the role of dendritic cells in peripheral T cell tolerance and modulation of autoimmunity.

Recently, it has become clear that dendritic cells (DCs) are essential for the priming of T cell responses. However, their role in the maintenance of peripheral T cell tolerance remains largely undefined. Herein, an antigen-presenting cell (APC) transfer system was devised and applied to experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE), to evaluate the contribution that DCs play in peripheral T cell tolerance. The CD8alpha(-)CD4(+) subset, a minor population among splenic DCs, was found to mediate both tolerance and bystander suppression against diverse T cell specificities. Aggregated (agg) Ig-myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG), an Ig chimera carrying the MOG 35-55 peptide, binds and cross-links FcgammaR on APC leading to efficient peptide presentation and interleukin (IL)-10 production. Furthermore, administration of agg Ig-MOG into diseased mice induces relief from clinical EAE involving multiple epitopes. Such recovery could not occur in FcgammaR-deficient mice where both uptake of Ig-MOG and IL-10 production are compromised. However, reconstitution of these mice with DC populations incorporating the CD8alpha(-)CD4(+) subset restored Ig-MOG-mediated reversal of EAE. Transfer of CD8alpha(+) or even CD8alpha(-)CD4(-) DCs had no effect on the disease. These findings strongly implicate DCs in peripheral tolerance and emphasize their functional potency, as a small population of DCs was able to support effective suppression of autoimmunity.

Simulated microgravity-mediated reversion of murine lymphoma immune evasion.

No human has returned to the moon since the end of the Apollo program 47 years ago, however, new missions are planned for an orbital outpost. Space radiation and the potential for cancer remain as important issues to the future of human space exploration. While improved shield technologies and protective biologicals are under development, little is known concerning the interaction between cancer cells and host immunity in microgravity. As a hallmark of cancer, tumor cells employ mechanisms of immune evasion to avoid elimination by protective CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. We showed that a murine lymphoma was able to produce a soluble factor that inhibited the function of dendritic cells in activating the CD4+ T cells. Culture of the lymphoma cells in simulated microgravity (SMG), and not Static conditions, restored the CD4+ T cell response and augmented CD8+ T cell-mediated destruction of the cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Thus, SMG impaired the mechanism of tumor escape and rendered the cancer cells more susceptible to T cell-mediated elimination. The stress of microgravity may expose the most critical components of a tumor's escape mechanism for astronaut protection and the generation of new cancer therapeutics for patients on Earth.

Prolonged exposure to simulated microgravity diminishes dendritic cell immunogenicity.

Immune dysfunction due to microgravity remains a hurdle in the next step of human space exploration. Dendritic cells (DC) represent a critical component of immunity, given their role in the detection of invaders and the subsequent task of activating T cells to respond and eliminate the threat. Upon encounter with microbes, DC undergo a process of maturation, whereby the cells upregulate the expression of surface proteins and secrete cytokines, both required for the optimal activation of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. In this study, DC were cultured from 2-14 days in a rotary cell culture system, which generates a simulated microgravity (SMG) environment, and then the cells were assessed for maturation status and the capacity to activate T cells. Short-term culture (<72 h) of DC in SMG resulted in an increased expression of surface proteins associated with maturation and interleukin-6 production. Subsequently, the SMG exposed DC were superior to Static control DC at activating both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells as measured by interleukin-2 and interferon-γ production, respectively. However, long-term culture (4-14 d) of DC in SMG reduced the expression of maturation markers and the capacity to activate T cells as compared to Static DC controls.

T cell resistance to activation by dendritic cells requires long-term culture in simulated microgravity.

Immune impairment mediated by microgravity threatens the success of space exploration requiring long-duration spaceflight. The cells of most concern, T lymphocytes, coordinate the host response against microbial and cancerous challenges leading to elimination and long-term protection. T cells are activated upon recognition of specific microbial peptides bound on the surface of antigen presenting cells, such as dendritic cells (DC). Subsequently, this engagement results in T cell proliferation and differentiation into effector T cells driven by autocrine interleukin-2 (IL-2) and other cytokines. Finally, the effector T cells acquire the weaponry needed to destroy microbial invaders and tumors. Studies conducted on T cells during spaceflight, or using Earth-based culture systems, have shown reduced production of cytokines, proliferation and effector functions as compared to controls. This may account for the cases of viral reactivation events and opportunistic infections associated with astronauts of numerous missions. This work has largely been based upon the outcome of T cell activation by stimulatory factors that target select T cell signaling pathways rather than the complex, signaling events related to the natural process of antigen presentation by DC. This study tested the response of an ovalbumin peptide-specific T cell line, OT-II TCH, to activation by DC when the T cells were cultured 24-120 h in a simulated microgravity (SMG) environment generated by a rotary cell culture system. Following 72 h culture of T cells in SMG (SMG-T) or control static (Static-T) conditions, IL-2 production by the T cells was reduced in SMG-T cells compared to Static-T cells upon stimulation by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) and ionomycin. However, when the SMG-T cells were stimulated with DC and peptide, IL-2 was significantly increased compared to Static-T cells. Such enhanced IL-2 production by SMG-T cells peaked at 72 h SMG culture time and decreased thereafter. When activation of SMG-T cells occurred in SMG, the T cells produced less IL-2 than control T cell cultures upon incubation with PMA and ionomycin. Short-term (24 h) SMG culture and activation of T cells by DC resulted in enhanced IL-2 production compared to Static-T cells, however, when culture was extended to 120 h, SMG-T cells secreted significantly less IL-2 than Static-T cells. SMG-T cell IL-2 doubled upon stimulation of the DC prior to addition to the T cell culture but remained less than control. SMG-T cell resistance to activation appeared comparable to the phenomenon of T cell exhaustion observed in patients with chronic diseases or persistent tumors. That is, long-term culture of T cells in SMG resulted in increased expression of the inhibitory receptor, CTLA-4. Blockade of CTLA-4 interaction with DC ligands resulted in improved T cell IL-2 production. Overall, this is the first study to determine the efficacy of DC in activating peptide-specific T cells. Furthermore, the findings suggests that countermeasures to restore T cell responsiveness in astronauts during long-term spaceflight or those living in microgravity environments should target possible inhibitory pathways that arise on activated T cells following stimulation.

Differential Expression of Homing Receptor Ligands on Tumor-Associated Vasculature that Control CD8 Effector T-cell Entry.

Although CD8+ T cells are critical for controlling tumors, how they are recruited and home to primary and metastatic lesions is incompletely understood. We characterized the homing receptor (HR) ligands on tumor vasculature to determine what drives their expression and their role in T-cell entry. The anatomic location of B16-OVA tumors affected the expression of E-selectin, MadCAM-1, and VCAM-1, whereas the HR ligands CXCL9 and ICAM-1 were expressed on the vasculature regardless of location. VCAM-1 and CXCL9 expression was induced by IFNγ-secreting adaptive immune cells. VCAM-1 and CXCL9/10 enabled CD8+ T-cell effectors expressing α4ß1 integrin and CXCR3 to enter both subcutaneous and peritoneal tumors, whereas E-selectin enabled E-selectin ligand+ effectors to enter subcutaneous tumors. However, MadCAM-1 did not mediate α4ß7+ effector entry into peritoneal tumors due to an unexpected lack of luminal expression. These data establish the relative importance of certain HRs expressed on activated effectors and certain HR ligands expressed on tumor vasculature in the effective immune control of tumors. Cancer Immunol Res; 5(12); 1062-73. ©2017 AACR.

Innocuous IFNgamma induced by adjuvant-free antigen restores normoglycemia in NOD mice through inhibition of IL-17 production.

The role of Th17 cells in type I diabetes (TID) remains largely unknown. Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) sequence 206-220 (designated GAD2) represents a late-stage epitope, but GAD2-specific T cell receptor transgenic T cells producing interferon gamma (IFNgamma) protect against passive TID. Because IFNgamma is known to inhibit Th17 cells, effective presentation of GAD2 peptide under noninflammatory conditions may protect against TID at advanced disease stages. To test this premise, GAD2 was genetically incorporated into an immunoglobulin (Ig) molecule to magnify tolerance, and the resulting Ig-GAD2 was tested against TID at different stages of the disease. The findings indicated that Ig-GAD2 could not prevent TID at the preinsulitis phase, but delayed TID at the insulitis stage. More importantly, Ig-GAD2 sustained both clearance of pancreatic cell infiltration and beta-cell division and restored normoglycemia when given to hyperglycemic mice at the prediabetic stage. This was dependent on the induction of splenic IFNgamma that inhibited interleukin (IL)-17 production. In fact, neutralization of IFNgamma led to a significant increase in the frequency of Th17 cells, and the treatment became nonprotective. Thus, IFNgamma induced by an adjuvant free antigen, contrary to its usual inflammatory function, restores normoglycemia, most likely by localized bystander suppression of pathogenic IL-17-producing cells.

NKT cell activation mediates neutrophil IFN-gamma production and renal ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Previous work has shown that ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury (IRI) is dependent on CD4(+) T cells from naive mice acting within 24 h. We hypothesize that NKT cells are key participants in the early innate response in IRI. Kidneys from C57BL/6 mice were subjected to IRI (0.5, 1, 3, and 24 h of reperfusion). After 30 min of reperfusion, we observed a significant increase in CD4(+) cells (145% of control) from single-cell kidney suspensions as measured by flow cytometry. A significant fraction of CD4(+) T cells expressed the activation marker, CD69(+), and adhesion molecule, LFA-1(high). Three hours after reperfusion, kidney IFN-gamma-producing cells were comprised largely of GR-1(+)CD11b(+) neutrophils, but also contained CD1d-restricted NKT cells. Kidney IRI in mice administered Abs to block CD1d, or deplete NKT cells or in mice deficient of NKT cells (Jalpha18(-/-)), was markedly attenuated. These effects were associated with a significant decrease in renal infiltration and, in activation of NKT cells, and a decrease in IFN-gamma-producing neutrophils. The results support the essential role of NKT cells and neutrophils in the innate immune response of renal IRI by mediating neutrophil infiltration and production of IFN-gamma.

IL-10 diminishes CTLA-4 expression on islet-resident T cells and sustains their activation rather than tolerance.

IL-10, a powerful anti-Th1 cytokine, has shown paradoxical effects against diabetes. The mechanism underlying such variable function remains largely undefined. An approach for controlled mobilization of endogenous IL-10 was applied to the NOD mouse and indicated that IL-10 encounter with diabetogenic T cells within the islets sustains activation, while encounter occurring peripheral to the islets induces tolerance. Insulin beta-chain (INSbeta) 9-23 peptide was expressed on an Ig, and the aggregated (agg) form of the resulting Ig-INSbeta triggered IL-10 production by APCs, and expanded IL-10-producing T regulatory cells. Consequently, agg Ig-INSbeta delayed diabetes effectively in young NOD mice whose pathogenic T cells remain peripheral to the islets. However, agg Ig-INSbeta was unable to suppress the disease in 10-wk-old insulitis-positive animals whose diabetogenic T cells have populated the islets. This is not due to irreversibility of the disease because soluble Ig-INSbeta did delay diabetes in these older mice. Evidence is provided indicating that upon migration to the islet, T cells were activated and up-regulated CTLA-4 expression. IL-10, however, reverses such up-regulation, abolishing CTLA-4-inhibitory functions and sustaining activation of the islet T lymphocytes. Therefore, IL-10 supports T cell tolerance in the periphery, but its interplay with CTLA-4 sustains activation within the islets. As a result, IL-10 displays opposite functions against diabetes in young vs older insulitis-positive mice.

Specific T regulatory cells display broad suppressive functions against experimental allergic encephalomyelitis upon activation with cognate antigen.

To date, very few Ag-based regimens have been defined that could expand T regulatory (Treg) cells to reverse autoimmunity. Additional understanding of Treg function with respect to specificity and broad suppression should help overcome these limitations. Ig-proteolipid protein (PLP)1, an Ig carrying a PLP1 peptide corresponding to amino acid residues 139-151 of PLP, displayed potent tolerogenic functions and proved effective against experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE). In this study, we took advantage of the Ig-PLP1 system and the PLP1-specific TCR transgenic 5B6 mouse to define a regimen that could expand Ag-specific Treg cells in vivo and tested for effectiveness against autoimmunity involving diverse T cell specificities. The findings indicate that in vivo exposure to aggregated Ig-PLP1 drives PLP1-specific 5B6 TCR transgenic cells to evolve as Treg cells expressing CD25, CTLA-4, and Foxp3 and producing IL-10. These Treg cells were able to suppress PLP1 peptide-induced EAE in both SJL/J and F(1) (SJL/J x C57BL/6) mice. However, despite being effective against disease induced with a CNS homogenate, the Treg cells were unable to counter EAE induced by a myelin basic protein or a myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide. Nevertheless, activation with Ag before transfer into the host mice supports suppression of both myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein- and myelin basic protein peptide-induced EAE. Thus, it is suggested that activation of Treg cells by the cognate autoantigen is necessary for operation of broad suppressive functions.

Break of neonatal Th1 tolerance and exacerbation of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis by interference with B7 costimulation.

Ig-PLP1 is an Ig chimera expressing proteolipid protein-1 (PLP1) peptide corresponding to aa residues 139-151 of PLP. Newborn mice given Ig-PLP1 in saline on the day of birth and challenged 7 wk later with PLP1 peptide in CFA develop an organ-specific neonatal immunity that confers resistance against experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. The T cell responses in these animals comprise Th2 cells in the lymph node and anergic Th1 lymphocytes in the spleen. Intriguingly, the anergic splenic T cells, although nonproliferative and unable to produce IFN-gamma or IL-4, secrete significant amounts of IL-2. In this work, studies were performed to determine whether costimulation through B7 molecules plays any role in the unusual form of splenic Th1 anergy. The results show that engagement of either B7.1 or B7.2 with anti-B7 Abs during induction of EAE in adult mice that were neonatally tolerized with Ig-PLP1 restores and exacerbates disease severity. At the cellular level, the anergic splenic T cells regain the ability to proliferate and produce IFN-gamma when stimulated with Ag in the presence of either anti-B7.1 or anti-B7.2 Ab. However, such restoration was abolished when both B7.1 and B7.2 molecules were engaged simultaneously, indicating that costimulation is necessary for reactivation. Surprisingly, both anti-B7.1 and anti-B7.2 Abs triggered splenic dendritic cells to produce IL-12, a key cytokine required for restoration of the anergic T cells. Thus, recovery from neonatally induced T cell anergy requires B7 molecules to serve double functions, namely, costimulation and induction of cytokine production by APCs.

IL-4 utilizes an alternative receptor to drive apoptosis of Th1 cells and skews neonatal immunity toward Th2.

Primary neonatal Th1 cells develop alongside of Th2 upon priming of the newborn but undergo apoptosis upon recall with antigen. These Th1 cells were isolated, and their death was correlated with elevated IL-13Ralpha1 chain expression. Strikingly, neutralization of Th2s' IL-4 reduced apoptosis, sustained recall responses, and the live Th1 cells displayed a decrease in IL-13Ralpha1 expression. Blockade of IL-13Ralpha1 or IL-4Ralpha also restores recall and secondary Th1 responses. Adult T cells primed within the neonatal environment did not upregulate IL-13Ralpha1 chain or undergo apoptosis and developed recall Th1 responses. These observations indicate that developmental expression of IL-13Ralpha1 along with IL-4Ralpha provides a receptor through which IL-4 induces death of Th1 cells and skews neonatal immunity toward Th2.

A sudden decline in active membrane-bound TGF-beta impairs both T regulatory cell function and protection against autoimmune diabetes.

Autoimmunity presumably manifests as a consequence of a shortfall in the maintenance of peripheral tolerance by CD4(+)CD25(+) T regulatory cells (Tregs). However, the mechanism underlying the functional impairment of Tregs remains largely undefined. In this study a glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) diabetogenic epitope was expressed on an Ig to enhance tolerogenic function, and the resulting Ig-GAD expanded Tregs in both young and older insulitis-positive, nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice, but delayed autoimmune diabetes only in the former. Interestingly, Tregs induced at 4 wk of age had significant active membrane-bound TGF-beta (mTGF-beta) and sustained protection against diabetes, whereas Tregs expanded during insulitis had minimal mTGF-beta and could not protect against diabetes. The Tregs probably operate suppressive function through mTGF-beta, because Ab blockade of mTGF-beta nullifies protection against diabetes. Surprisingly, young Tregs that modulated pathogenic T cells maintained stable frequency over time in the protected animals, but decreased their mTGF-beta at the age of 8 wk. More strikingly, these 8-wk-old mTGF-beta-negative Tregs, which were previously protective, became unable to confer resistance against diabetes. Thus, a developmental decline in active mTGF-beta nullifies Treg function, leading to a break in tolerance and the onset of diabetes.