Retinoic acid receptor ß2 agonists restore glycaemic control in diabetes and reduce steatosis.

AIMS: To investigate the effects of specific retinoic acid receptor (RAR) agonists in diabetes and fatty liver disease. METHODS: Synthetic agonists for RARß2 were administered to wild-type (wt) mice in a model of high-fat-diet (HFD)-induced type 2 diabetes (T2D) and to ob/ob and db/db mice (genetic models of obesity-associated T2D). RESULTS: We show that administration of synthetic agonists for RARß2 to either wt mice in a model of HFD-induced T2D or to ob/ob and db/db mice reduces hyperglycaemia, peripheral insulin resistance and body weight. Furthermore, RARß2 agonists dramatically reduce steatosis, lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress in the liver, pancreas and kidneys of obese, diabetic mice. RARß2 agonists also lower levels of mRNAs involved in lipogenesis, such as sterol regulatory element-binding transcription factor 1 (SREBP1) and fatty acid synthase, and increase mRNAs that mediate mitochondrial fatty acid ß-oxidation, such as CPT1α, in these organs. RARß2 agonists lower triglyceride levels in these organs, and in muscle. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, our data show that orally active, rapid-acting, high-affinity pharmacological agonists for RARß2 improve the diabetic phenotype while reducing lipid levels in key insulin target tissues. We suggest that RARß2 agonists should be useful drugs for T2D therapy and for treatment of hepatic steatosis.

Vitamin A, differentiation and cancer.

Retinoids, which are derivatives of vitamin A, have a variety of effects on normal cellular differentiation and on the process of carcinogenesis. A number of novel endogenous retinol metabolites have been identified recently. The response of many cell types to retinoid treatment is mediated by retinoid receptors, and involves changes in gene expression, cell growth and cell differentiation. The gene encoding one of the retinoic acid receptors is disrupted by the chromosome translocations associated with acute promyelocytic leukemia, and the expression of another is altered in epithelial tumors; both of these findings have important implications for the use of retinoids as anti-carcinogenic agents. It has been demonstrated recently that certain homeobox genes are regulated by retinoids; these genes may also prove to be useful agents for anti-carcinogenic therapies.

Overexpression of the cellular retinoic acid binding protein-I (CRABP-I) results in a reduction in differentiation-specific gene expression in F9 teratocarcinoma cells.

Treatment of F9 teratocarcinoma stem cells with retinoic acid (RA) causes their irreversible differentiation into extraembryonic endoderm. To elucidate the role of the cellular retinoic acid binding protein-I (CRABP-I) in this differentiation process, we have generated several different stably transfected F9 stem cell lines expressing either elevated or reduced levels of functional CRABP-I protein. Stably transfected lines expressing elevated levels of CRABP-I exhibit an 80-90% reduction in the RA induced expression of retinoic acid receptor (RAR) beta, laminin B1, and collagen type IV (alpha 1) mRNAs at low exogenous RA concentrations, but this reduction is eliminated at higher RA concentrations. Thus, greater expression of CRABP-I reduces the potency of RA in this differentiation system. Moreover, transfection of a CRABP-I expression vector into F9 cells resulted in five- and threefold decreases in the activation of the laminin B1 RARE (retinoic acid response element) and the RAR beta RARE, respectively, as measured from RARE/CAT expression vectors in transient transfection assays. These results support the idea that CRABP-I sequesters RA within the cell and thereby prevents RA from acting to regulate differentiation specific gene expression. Our data suggest a mechanism whereby the level of CRABP-I can regulate responsiveness to RA during development.

Gene expression in visceral endoderm: a comparison of mutant and wild-type F9 embryonal carcinoma cell differentiation.

We have examined the abundance and cell specificity of several mRNAs that are regulated during the retinoic acid (RA)-induced differentiation of F9 embryonal carcinoma cells to visceral endoderm. The experiments confirmed the multistep nature of this process by demonstrating the expression of the ERA-1/Hox 1.6 message within 6 h after RA addition; the expression of messages specific for the extracellular matrix proteins laminin B1 and B2, and collagen IV(alpha 1) between days 4 and 12; and the expression of two visceral endoderm markers, alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) and H19, by days 8-15. In situ hybridization experiments revealed that the collagen IV(alpha 1) mRNA is restricted to the outer cell layer of F9 cell aggregates regardless of the presence or absence of RA. Laminin B1 and B2 mRNAs are concentrated in the outer cell layer of RA-treated aggregates although significant levels of message are also observed within the interior cells of the aggregates. Unexpectedly, AFP mRNA is detectable in only a subset of the outer cells of F9 cell aggregates grown 15 d in the presence of RA. The results obtained from wild-type F9 cells were compared with those from a mutant F9 cell line, RA-5-1, which was previously shown to synthesize collagen IV containing six- to ninefold less 4-hydroxyproline than that in wild-type F9 cells. RA-5-1 cells exhibit four- to sixfold less of the mRNAs encoding two visceral endoderm proteins, AFP and H19, than wild-type F9 cells after RA treatment of RA-5-1 aggregates. RA-5-1 cells, however, do exhibit an RA-associated increase in the level of ERA-1/Hox 1.6 mRNA within 6 h after adding RA. Although the collagen IV protein level is similar in wild-type F9 and RA-5-1 aggregates, the collagen IV(alpha 1) message level is 6-20-fold greater in aggregates of mutant cells than in aggregates of wild-type cells. Moreover, in situ hybridizations showed that this message is evenly distributed throughout the RA-5-1 aggregates rather than restricted to the outer cell layers as it is in wild-type F9 aggregates. These results suggest that abnormal collagen IV expression and localization are associated with decreased expression of the visceral endoderm markers, AFP and H19, in RA-5-1 cell aggregates.

Expression of fibroblast growth factor by F9 teratocarcinoma cells as a function of differentiation.

F9 teratocarcinoma stem cells treated with retinoic acid (RA) and dibutyryl cAMP (but2 cAMP) differentiate into embryonic parietal endoderm. Using heparin-affinity chromatography, endothelial cell proliferation assays, immunoprecipitation, and Western analysis with antibodies specific for acidic and basic fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), we detected biologically active FGF in F9 cells only after differentiation. A bovine basic FGF cDNA probe hybridized to 2.2-kb mRNAs in both F9 stem and parietal endoderm cells and to a 3.8-kb mRNA in F9 stem cells. A genomic DNA probe for acidic FGF hybridized to a 5.8-6.0-kb mRNA in both F9 stem and parietal endoderm cells, and to a 6.0-6.3-kb mRNA only in parietal endoderm cells. Although these FGF mRNAs were present in the stem cells, we could find no evidence that F9 stem cells synthesized FGFs, whereas differentiated F9 cells synthesized both acidic and basic FGF-like proteins. We conclude that biologically active factors with properties characteristic of acidic and basic FGF are expressed by F9 parietal endoderm cells after differentiation. Differentiating embryonic parietal endoderm thus may serve as a source of FGF molecules in the developing blastocyst, where these factors appear to play a central role in subsequent embryogenesis.

Retinoic acid and homeobox gene regulation.

Hox genes have been shown to be important regulators of pattern formation in vertebrates. Retinoic acid has been shown to affect the expression of Hox genes in vitro and in vivo, and some of its effects on development correspond to changes in Hox gene expression. The idea that retinoic acid is not simply a powerful pharmocological agent, but rather that it plays an important role in creating the normal expression patterns of Hox genes, is provided by the recent identification of retinoic acid responsive enhancers near Hox genes.

Deoxyguanosine triphosphate as a possible toxic metabolite in the immunodeficiency associated with purine nucleoside phosphorylase deficiency.

Purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) deficiency is associated with a severe defect in thymus-derived (T)-lymphocyte function combined with normal bone marrow-derived (B)-lymphocyte function. To investigate the role of this enzyme deficiency in the resulting immune dysfunction, we measured the levels of ribonucleoside and deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates in erythrocytes from two unrelated PNP-deficient, T-lymphocyte-deficient patients. Both PNP-deficient patients have abnormally high levels of deoxyguanosine triphosphate (deoxy-GTP) in their erythrocytes (5 and 8 nmol/ml packed erythrocytes). In contrast, normal controls and adenosine deaminase-deficient, immunodeficient patients do not have detectable amounts of deoxyGTP (<0.5 nmol/ml packed erythrocytes). We propose that deoxyguanosine, a substrate of PNP, is the potentially lymphotoxic metabolite in PNP deficiency. The mechanism of toxicity involves phosphorylation of deoxyguanosine to deoxyGTP, which acts as a potent inhibitor of mammalian ribonucleotide reductase.

Cyclic AMP analogs and retinoic acid influence the expression of retinoic acid receptor alpha, beta, and gamma mRNAs in F9 teratocarcinoma cells.

Retinoic acid (RA) receptor alpha (RAR alpha) and RAR gamma steady-state mRNA levels remained relatively constant over time after the addition of RA to F9 teratocarcinoma stem cells. In contrast, the steady-state RAR beta mRNA level started to increase within 12 h after the addition of RA and reached a 20-fold-higher level by 48 h. This RA-associated RAR beta mRNA increase was not prevented by protein synthesis inhibitors but was prevented by the addition of cyclic AMP analogs. In the presence of RA, cyclic AMP analogs also greatly reduced the RAR alpha and RAR gamma mRNA levels, even though cyclic AMP analogs alone did not alter these mRNA levels. The addition of either RA or RA plus cyclic AMP analogs did not result in changes in the three RAR mRNA half-lives. These results suggest that agents which elevate the internal cyclic AMP concentration may also affect the cellular response to RA by altering the expression of the RARs.

Early retinoic acid-induced F9 teratocarcinoma stem cell gene ERA-1: alternate splicing creates transcripts for a homeobox-containing protein and one lacking the homeobox.

Retinoic acid (RA), the natural acidic derivative of vitamin A, can modulate the expression of specific genes and can induce some cell types, such as the murine F9 teratocarcinoma stem cell line, to differentiate in culture. As an initial step toward understanding the molecular mechanism(s) by which RA exerts these effects, we previously isolated cDNA clones for a gene, ERA-1, which has the characteristics of an early, direct target for RA. We demonstrated that RA causes a rapid, dose-dependent, and protein synthesis-independent expression of the ERA-1 gene (G. J. LaRosa and L. J. Gudas, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85:329-333, 1988). We now report the full-length cDNA sequence and the further characterization of this gene. The data indicate that the RA-induced 2.2- to 2.4-kilobase ERA-1 RNA species that we previously detected consists of two alternately spliced messages. One mRNA encodes a protein with a predicted mass of about 36 kilodaltons (kDa) that possesses the Hox 1.6 homeobox domain. The other mRNA encodes a truncated protein of about 15 kDa which is identical to the 36-kDa protein for 114 amino acids at the amino-terminal end but which lacks the homeobox amino acid sequence. The RA-associated increase in the ERA-1 mRNA level does not appear to be due to message stabilization, suggesting that the response is at the level of transcription. By Northern (RNA) blot analysis, the usual 2.2- to 2.4-kilobase mRNA species was also rapidly expressed in P19 teratocarcinoma cells during their differentiation to fibroblastic cells in response to RA and was detected in day 10.5 and day 13.5 mouse embryos. This result indicates that the expression of this gene is not limited to the endodermal differentiation of F9 cells.

Isolation of cDNA clones for genes exhibiting reduced expression after differentiation of murine teratocarcinoma stem cells.

In the absence of retinoic acid, PSA-G teratocarcinoma stem cells spontaneously differentiate at a moderate frequency into fibroblast-like cells. In the presence of retinoic acid and dibutyryl cyclic AMP, PSA-G stem cells differentiate into parietal endoderm cells. We prepared a cDNA library from undifferentiated PSA-G teratocarcinoma stem cells; this cDNA library was then screened for gene sequences which exhibit a reduction in expression during the differentiation of these stem cells. From ca. 1,000 clones screened, eight independent sequences were isolated. The level of expression of these cloned genes decreases by 3.0-fold to more than 10-fold after differentiation of PSA-G cells into fibroblast-like cells. After treatment of either PSA-G or F9 teratocarcinoma cells with retinoic acid and dibutyryl cyclic AMP for 72 h, the expression of seven genes is inhibited by two- to fourfold. This decrease of clone-specific transcripts can be detected within 12 h after the addition of retinoic acid. Hybridization-selection and in vitro translation experiments identified the proteins encoded by three of the cloned genes: pST 6-23 codes for a 89,000-dalton protein, pST 7-105 codes for a 41,000-dalton protein, and pST 9-31 codes for a 34,000-dalton protein. The 89,000-dalton protein encoded by pST 6-23 is a heat shock protein. In vitro transcription experiments demonstrate that the retinoic acid-mediated decrease in pST 6-135- and pST 1-68-specific RNA occurs at the transcriptional level and that dibutyryl cyclic AMP acts posttranscriptionally to further depress the levels of these RNAs.

Expression of REX-1, a gene containing zinc finger motifs, is rapidly reduced by retinoic acid in F9 teratocarcinoma cells.

In the presence of retinoic acid (RA), cultured F9 murine teratocarcinoma stem cells differentiate into nontumorigenic cells resembling the extraembryonic endoderm of the early mouse embryo. By differential hybridization screening of an F9 cell cDNA library, we isolated a 1,745-nucleotide cDNA for a gene, REX-1 (for reduced expression), whose steady-state mRNA level began to decline in F9 cells in monolayer culture within 12 h after the addition of RA. By 48 to 96 h after RA treatment of F9 cells in monolayer culture, the REX-1 steady-state mRNA level was more than sevenfold lower than the level in undifferentiated F9 stem cells. The REX-1 mRNA decrease did not result from the reduction in cell growth rate associated with the differentiation process, since the REX-1 mRNA level did not decline in F9 cells that were partially growth arrested after 48 h of isoleucine deprivation. The RA-associated REX-1 mRNA decrease resulted primarily from a reduction in the transcription rate of the REX-1 gene in the presence of RA. In contrast to results in F9 cells, we have been unable thus far to detect REX-1 mRNA in day 7.5 to 12.5 mouse embryo RNA samples or in the P19 teratocarcinoma stem cell line. The putative REX-1 protein identified by DNA sequence analysis contains four repeats of the zinc finger nucleic acid-binding motif and a potential acidic activator domain, suggesting that REX-1 encodes a regulatory protein. The REX-1 gene is not identical to the previously reported murine genes that encode zinc finger-containing proteins.

Rex-1, a gene encoding a transcription factor expressed in the early embryo, is regulated via Oct-3/4 and Oct-6 binding to an octamer site and a novel protein, Rox-1, binding to an adjacent site.

The Rex-1 (Zfp-42) gene, which encodes an acidic zinc finger protein, is expressed at high levels in embryonic stem (ES) and F9 teratocarcinoma cells. Prior analysis identified an octamer motif in the Rex-1 promoter which is required for promoter activity in undifferentiated F9 cells and is involved in retinoic acid (RA)-associated reduction in expression. We show here that the Oct-3/4 transcription factor, but not Oct-1, can either activate or repress the Rex-1 promoter, depending on the cellular environment. Rex-1 repression is enhanced by E1A. The protein domain required for Oct-3/4 activation was mapped to amino acids 1 to 35, whereas the domain required for Oct-3/4 repression was mapped to amino acids 61 to 126, suggesting that the molecular mechanisms underlying transcriptional activation and repression differ. Like Oct-3/4, Oct-6 can also lower the expression of the Rex-1 promoter via the octamer site, and the amino-terminal portion of Oct-6 mediates this repression. In addition to the octamer motif, a novel positive regulatory element, located immediately 5' of the octamer motif, was identified in the Rex-1 promoter. Mutations in this element greatly reduce Rex-1 promoter activity in F9 cells. High levels of a binding protein(s), designated Rox-1, recognize this novel DNA element in F9 cells, and this binding activity is reduced following RA treatment. Taken together, these results indicate that the Rex-1 promoter is regulated by specific octamer family members in early embryonic cells and that a novel element also contributes to Rex-1 expression.

An octamer motif contributes to the expression of the retinoic acid-regulated zinc finger gene Rex-1 (Zfp-42) in F9 teratocarcinoma cells.

The message for the zinc finger gene Rex-1 (Zfp-42) is expressed in undifferentiated murine F9 teratocarcinoma cells and embryonic stem cells. Expression of Rex-1 is reduced at the transcriptional level when F9 cells are induced by the addition of retinoic acid (RA) to differentiate. We have isolated genomic DNA for the Rex-1 gene (Zfp-42), characterized the gene's structure, and mapped the gene to mouse chromosome 8. Promoter elements contributing to the regulation of the Rex-1 promoter in F9 cells have been identified. A region required for Rex-1 promoter activity in F9 stem cells contains an octamer motif (ATTTGCAT) which is a binding site for octamer transcription factor members of the POU domain family of DNA-binding proteins. Rex-1 reporter plasmids including this octamer site also exhibited reduced expression in F9 cells treated with RA. Thus, the octamer motif is a regulatory element required for the activity of the Rex-1 promoter in F9 stem cells, and this motif contributes to the negative regulation by RA of the transcription of the Rex-1 gene. As an initial confirmation of the in vivo relevance of the isolated fragment, a larger Rex-1 promoter fragment, also containing the octamer site, was able to promote expression of the bacterial lacZ gene in mouse embryos at the morula stage.

Targeted disruption of retinoic acid receptor alpha (RAR alpha) and RAR gamma results in receptor-specific alterations in retinoic acid-mediated differentiation and retinoic acid metabolism.

F9 embryonic teratocarcinoma stem cells differentiate into an epithelial cell type called extraembryonic endoderm when treated with retinoic acid (RA), a derivative of retinol (vitamin A). This differentiation is presumably mediated through the actions of retinoid receptors, the RARs and RXRs. To delineate the functions of each of the different retinoid receptors in this model system, we have generated F9 cell lines in which both copies of either the RAR alpha gene or the RAR gamma gene are disrupted by homologous recombination. The absence of RAR alpha is associated with a reduction in the RA-induced expression of both the CRABP-II and Hoxb-1 (formerly 2.9) genes. The absence of RAR gamma is associated with a loss of the RA-inducible expression of the Hoxa-1 (formerly Hox-1.6), Hoxa-3 (formerly Hox-1.5), laminin B1, collagen IV (alpha 1), GATA-4, and BMP-2 genes. Furthermore, the loss of RAR gamma is associated with a reduction in the metabolism of all-trans-RA to more polar derivatives, while the loss of RAR alpha is associated with an increase in metabolism of RA relative to wild-type F9 cells. Thus, each of these RARs exhibits some specificity with respect to the regulation of differentiation-specific gene expression. These results provide an explanation for the expression of multiple RAR types within one cell type and suggest that each RAR has specific functions.

Bone morphogenetic proteins-2 and -4 are involved in the retinoic acid-induced differentiation of embryonal carcinoma cells.

Bone morphogenetic proteins-2 and -4 (BMPs-2 and -4) are transforming growth factor beta-related proteins that can induce bone formation in vivo. We observed that the level of endogenous BMP-2 mRNA increased an average of 11-fold on differentiation of F9 embryonal carcinoma cells into parietal endoderm after treatment with retinoic acid (RA) and cAMP, whereas the message for the closely related BMP-4 decreased 12-fold after this treatment. Therefore, the effects of exogenous recombinant BMP-2 protein on the RA-induced differentiation of F9 embryonal carcinoma cells were investigated. BMP-2 addition altered the growth and morphology of RA-treated but not untreated cells. Moreover, the abundance of several messages was affected by exogenous BMP-2 treatment. Notably, the BMP-2 and -4 messages themselves were reduced by the addition of exogenous BMP-2. The observations suggest that RA, which is known to affect bone morphogenesis, may regulate the osteoinductive proteins, BMP-2 and -4. Furthermore, BMP-2 and -4 may be involved in preimplantation embryogenesis.

Mouse cellular retinoic acid binding protein: cloning, complementary DNA sequence, and messenger RNA expression during the retinoic acid-induced differentiation of F9 wild type and RA-3-10 mutant teratocarcinoma cells.

Retinoic acid, a natural derivative of vitamin A (retinol), induces mouse F9 teratocarcinoma stem cells to differentiate into nontumorigenic parietal endoderm cells. The mouse cellular retinoic acid binding protein (CRABP) has been implicated in the mechanism of action of retinoic acid (RA), since a mutant F9 cell line, RA-3-10, which possesses less than 5% of the wild type level of [3H]RA:CRABP binding activity, fails to differentiate in response to RA. In order to study the CRABP in this RA-induced differentiation process, we have cloned and sequenced the full-length mouse CRABP complementary DNA and have characterized its expression in wild type F9 and mutant cells. The mouse CRABP mRNA is a single, low abundant mRNA approximately 800 bases in length. The steady state level of the CRABP mRNA was measured in untreated stem cells and after the addition of RA alone, dibutyryl cyclic AMP plus theophylline (CT), or retinoic acid, dibutyryl cyclic AMP and theophylline (RACT) to F9 wild type and the mutant RA-3-10 cells. The CRABP mRNA was present in wild type F9 stem cells, and the level of its expression was changed by RA. When RA was added to F9 wild type cells, the steady state level of CRABP mRNA decreased 2- to 3-fold. When RACT was added to wild type cells, the level of CRABP mRNA increased and then decreased, resulting in a peak of CRABP mRNA expression between 24 and 48 h. In contrast, untreated mutant RA-3-10 cells had a lower level of CRABP mRNA than wild type stem cells, and the mutant cells responded quite differently to the addition of RA and RACT. The addition of RA caused an impressive 60-fold increase in the steady state level of CRABP mRNA in RA-3-10 cells by 120 h. One interpretation of this result is that there is negative regulation of CRABP mRNA expression, mediated directly or indirectly by the wild type functional CRABP protein, and that this regulation is aberrant in the RA-3-10 cells.

Metabolism of all-trans-retinol in normal human cell strains and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) lines from the oral cavity and skin: reduced esterification of retinol in SCC lines.

Retinoids, metabolites and synthetic derivatives of vitamin A (retinol), have been shown to inhibit carcinogenesis in various epithelial tissues in animal model systems and to have clinical efficacy as chemotherapeutic agents against certain types of cancer, including squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs). We examined the metabolism of [3H]retinol in normal human cell strains and SCC lines from the oral cavity and skin, and we report here that the cultured normal human epithelial cell strains esterified [3H]retinol to a much greater extent than the SCC lines. Furthermore, microsomal extracts of normal cell strains (e.g., OKF4) exhibited about 7-fold more palmityl-CoA-dependent, phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride-resistant retinol esterification activity than extracts from SCC lines (e.g., SCC25). The fact that the esteriflcation of retinol was phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride resistant suggests that the enzyme acyl-CoA:retinol acyltransferase is involved. Culture of both the normal and SCC lines in the presence of 1 microM all-trans-retinoic acid (RA) for 48 h enhanced the formation of [3H]retinyl esters from [3H]retinol. All of the cell lines examined can also metabolize [3H]retinol to [3H]RA, [3H]14-hydroxy-4,14-retroretinol, [3H]retinaldehyde, and [3H]3,4-didehydroretinol, but this metabolism occurs to varying extents in different cell lines. Culture of the cells in the presence of RA for 48 h did not affect the subsequent metabolism of [3H]retinol to [3H]RA and [3H]14-hydroxy-4,14-retroretinol, but it did reduce the metabolism of [3H]retinol to [3H]3,4-didehydroretinol. When cultured for 6-10 h in the presence of nanomolar concentrations of exogenous [3H]retinol, both the normal and SCC lines had much higher intracellular [3H]retinol concentrations, in the micromolar range. No correlation was seen between CRABP II or CRBP I mRNA levels and the levels of either intracellular [3H]retinol or [3H]retinol metabolism in these lines. The reduced ability to esterify retinol in these tumor cells may result in inappropriate cell growth and the loss of normal differentiation responses because of the lack of a sufficient amount of internal retinol stored as retinyl esters.

Human breast cancer cells and normal mammary epithelial cells: retinol metabolism and growth inhibition by the retinol metabolite 4-oxoretinol.

To understand the signaling and growth-inhibitory effects of retinoids, we have examined the metabolism of [3H]retinol in a number of estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) and estrogen receptor-negative (ER-) human breast cancer cell lines. We have also assayed the metabolism of [3H]retinol in normal human mammary epithelial cells. The ER+ breast cancer cell lines MCF-7 and T47D produce [3H]4-oxoretinol from [3H]retinol; the production of [3H]4-oxoretinol is increased by initial culture in the presence of nonradiolabeled retinoic acid (RA) or N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)retinamide, indicating that these drugs enhance [3H]retinol metabolism to [3H]4-oxoretinol. No metabolism of [3H]retinol to [3H]RA in these ER+ tumor lines was detected. ER- breast cancer lines MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-468, and BT20 do not metabolize [3H]retinol to [3H]4-oxoretinol. In the ER- tumor lines, most of the [3H]retinol remains unmetabolized during the 24-h culture period; MDA-MB-468 and BT20 metabolize some [3H]retinol to [3H]RA. Unlike the majority of the tumor lines, the normal human breast epithelial cell strains AD074 and MCF10A rapidly metabolize [3H]retinol to [3H]retinyl esters. No detectable [3H]RA is produced from [3H]retinol in AD074 and MCF10A cells. Thus, the normal breast epithelial strains, the ER+ tumor lines and the ER- tumor lines differ greatly in their pathways of [3H]retinol metabolism. The levels of cellular retinol binding protein-I mRNA expression are not correlated with the levels or types of various retinol metabolites. Whereas the normal breast epithelial cells and the ER+ tumor lines are growth inhibited by RA, N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)retinamide, and 4-oxoretinol, only the 4-oxoretinol is growth inhibitory in the ER- tumor lines. The cellular retinoic acid-binding protein II mRNA levels are not correlated with the growth inhibition by RA or 4-oxoretinol in the normal and tumor lines.

Abnormal expression of retinoic acid receptors and keratin 19 by human oral and epidermal squamous cell carcinoma cell lines.

We have analyzed the expression of the three retinoic acid receptor (RAR) (alpha, beta, gamma) mRNAs and the intermediate filament protein keratin 19 (K19) mRNA in cell lines cultured from oral and epidermal human squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and from benign, hyperplastic, and hyperkeratotic (leukoplakia) lesions arising in various regions of the oral cavity. Seven of the SCC lines were derived from tumors arising in regions of the oral cavity in which the normal epithelial cells (keratinocytes) express RAR beta transcripts. Seven of the nine SCC lines tested did not exhibit detectable RAR beta mRNA levels, even in response to addition of retinoic acid (RA). The RAR beta gene did not appear to be rearranged or deleted in the five nonexpressing SCC lines examined by Southern analysis. The steady-state RAR gamma mRNA levels were 2- to 4-fold lower in 6 of the 9 SCC lines than in their normal counterparts, whereas the RAR alpha message levels in SCC lines were similar to those of the normal cell strains. The expression of keratin 19 message, which is RA inducible in normal keratinocytes, was also abnormal in many of the SCC cell lines. Some SCC lines, e.g., those derived form tumors of the soft palate epithelium, did not express high levels of K19 message even though normal soft palate keratinocytes expressed high levels of K19 mRNA. Two of the nine SCC lines expressed higher than normal levels of K19 mRNA, and this expression was RA independent. Cells cultured from four oral leukoplakia lesions were also examined and found to express RAR beta mRNA at relatively normal levels, but they expressed RAR gamma message at half the level of epithelial cells cultured from normal tissue. These results show that the correlation between RAR beta gene expression and K19 gene expression that we have observed in the various normal keratinocyte subtypes of the oral cavity (D.L. Crowe et al., manuscript in preparation) is not present in transformed keratinocytes (SCC cells). The lack of apparent RA regulation of the K19 gene in SCC lines may be associated with other aberrations in differentiation which have been identified in SCC cells. Abnormally low expression of the RAR beta receptor may contribute to neoplastic progression in stratified squamous epithelia. It may also determine whether a tumor is responsive to RA as a chemotherapeutic agent.

Reduced levels of retinyl esters and vitamin A in human renal cancers.

Clinical and preclinical studies suggest that retinoids can inhibit the growth of a small percentage of human renal cancers (RCs), although the majority of RCs both in vitro and in vivo are retinoid resistant. Our recent studies indicate that the metabolism of retinol to retinyl esters is greatly reduced in human carcinoma cell lines of the oral cavity, skin, and breast as compared with their normal epithelial counterparts, suggesting that human carcinoma cells are retinoid deficient relative to normal epithelial cells. We considered whether retinoid resistance in RCs was related to an abnormality in retinoid metabolism. The metabolism of [3H]retinol and of [3H]retinoic acid (RA) was examined in RC cell lines and normal human kidney (NK) epithelial cells cultured in media, in RA, or in RA plus IFN-alpha. The expression of LRAT (lecithin:retinol acyltransferase) was assessed by Northern and Western analysis. Retinol and retinyl ester levels were determined in tissue samples of normal human kidney and renal cell carcinoma. NK cells esterified all of the 50 nM [3H]retinol in which they were cultured. In contrast, six of the seven RC cell lines metabolized only trace amounts of [3H]retinol to [3H]retinyl esters. Consistent with this relative lack of [3H]retinol esterification by the tumor cells, the tumor cells exhibited LRAT transcripts of aberrantly low sizes relative to those in normal epithelial cells. Moreover, the NK cells expressed abundant levels of LRAT protein by Western analysis, whereas the RC cells did not express LRAT protein. When samples of human kidney tumor tissue were compared with samples of normal kidney tissue from patients who had undergone surgery for primary RC, the normal kidney tissues contained much higher levels of retinol and retinyl esters (approximately 0.5-2 microg/gram wet weight) than the tumor tissues in all seven patients examined. Culture of the RC lines in IFN-alpha plus all-trans-RA, a combination therapy used clinically, resulted in higher intracellular levels of [3H]retinol and [3H]retinyl esters. The metabolism of [3H]RA was also examined in these RC lines versus NK cells. Although the NK epithelial cells metabolized [3H]RA, the majority of the RC lines metabolized [3H]RA at a much slower rate. Most of the RC lines metabolized only 10-30% of the 50 nM [3H]RA over 6 h of culture. These data indicate that RCs both in vitro and in vivo are retinol and retinyl ester deficient relative to the normal human kidney, and they suggest that the aberrant differentiation of the neoplastic renal cells results in part from a defect in retinoid metabolism.