[Comparison of 24 hour dietary recalls with a food frequency questionnaire in evaluating dietary fat intakes].

OBJECTIVE: To compare the difference and correlation of dietary fat intakes measures from the food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ) with measures from 24 hour dietary recalls (24HDRs), and provide evidence for the future research of dietary fat. METHODS: A total of 511 participants, selected from Zhejiang province, were asked to complete an FFQ and 24HDRs. The consumption of energy, fat, fatty acids, the percentages of energy from fat were calculated with the FFQ and 24HDRs and the results were analyzed. RESULTS: There was no difference between FFQ and 24HDRs in energy, fat, fatty acids and the percentages of energy from fat. Sperman's rank correlation coefficient between the two methods were 0.51 in energy, 0.58 in fat and 0. 57 in the percentages of energy from fat. The proportion of subjects who were assigned to the same or adjacent quintile groups were 80.73% for energy, 84.81% for fat and 83. 38% for the percentages of energy from fat. CONCLUSION: An effective FFQ can evaluate dietary fat consumption and rank participants well. Selecting the simple and easy FFQ method to assess the dietary fat intake would he a good choice when research the relationship between dietary fat and chronic disease in the future.

[Trends of energy and nutrients intake among Chinese population in 2002-2012].

OBJECTIVE: To describe the energy and dietary nutrients intake trends among Chinese population from 2002 to 2012. METHODS: Data of energy, macronutrient, and micronutrient intake were collected from 2002 Chinese Nutrition and Health Survey, 2010-2012 Chinese Nutrition and Health Surveillance, and energy and dietary nutrients intake were analyzed. The 3-consecutive days-24-hour dietary recall and food weighting method were used to collect food, edible oil and condiment intake information. The dietary nutrients intake was calculated based on the energy percentage in one family and the China Food Composition. RESULTS: Compared with 2002, the average energy intake per reference man per day of Chinese people declined to 2172. 1 kcal from 2250. 5 kcal in 2010-2012. Dietary protein intake was basically flat. Dietary fat intake in 2010-2012 was 79. 9 g, with urban level higher than rural level. Compared with that in 2002, fat intake increased by 4 g, and urban residents' intake fell slightly, making urban / rural gap narrower. Theintake of micronutrient such as vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, iron, zinc was still lower than Chinese Dietary Reference Intakes and falling continually. CONCLUSION: In the last decade, Chinese urban / rural residents' dietary energy supply was sufficient, and the dietary nutrients intake had improved. However, there were excessive intake of fat and low intake of micronutrient was still a problem among Chinese population. There was significant difference between the urban and rural area, and the dietary quality among Chinese population especially rural residents should be improved.

Association between high fat-low carbohydrate diet score and newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes in Chinese population.

OBJECTIVE: To study the association between high fat-low carbohydrate diet score and newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes in Chinese population. METHODS: Data about 20 717 subjects aged 45-59 years from the cross-sectional 2002 China National Nutrition and Health Survey were analyzed. High fat-low carbohydrate diet was scored according to the energy of carbohydrate, fat, and protein. RESULTS: Of the 20 717 subjects, 1 332 were diagnosed with hyperglycemia and 662 were newly diagnosed with type 2 diabetes. Multivariate adjusted analysis showed that the highest score of type 2 diabetes patients was 2.75 (95% CI: 2.09-3.61). The score of type 2 diabetes patients was 1.87 (95% CI: 1.35-2.58) after further adjustment for their socioeconomic status and physical activity. No significant difference was found in the odds ratio after further adjustment for BMI, blood pressure, lipid level, and energy intake. No evidence was observed for the relation between high fat-low carbohydrate-diet score in type 2 diabetes patients due to high family income, less education, physical activity, overweight, hypertension, high TG, or low HDL level. CONCLUSION: High fat-low carbohydrate diets, far different from traditional Chinese diets, are associated with the high incidence of type 2 diabetes in Chinese population.

Dietary iodine intake in the Chinese population.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate dietary iodine intake and its potential risks among the Chinese population. METHODS: Individual dietary iodine intake was calculated using food consumption data multiplying by iodine concentration in foods, table salt and drinking water, followed by summing, and then compared with the corresponding age-specific reference values, including Upper Intake Level (UL) and Recommended Nutrient Intake (RNI). RESULTS: In areas with water iodine concentration (WI) lower than 150 µg/L, 80.8% of residents had iodine intake between the RNI and UL, 5.8% higher than UL, and the remaining (13.4%) lower than RNI if iodized salt was consumed. However, in the uniodized salt consumption scenario, only 1.0% of residents between RNI and UL, 1.4% higher than UL, and a large part of residents (97.6%) lower than RNI. In areas with WI higher than 150 µg/L, all residents had iodine intake between RNI and UL if iodized salt was consumed, except 10.5% and 24.9% of residents higher than UL in areas with WI at 150-300 µg/L and higher than 300 µg/L respectively. However, in the uniodized salt consumption scenario, only 1.5% and 1.7% of residents had higher iodine intake than UL respectively. CONCLUSION: The findings suggested that in general, the dietary iodine intake by the Chinese population was appropriate and safe at the present stage. People in areas with WI lower than 150 µg/L were more likely to have iodine deficiency. While people in areas with WI higher than 150 µg/L were more likely to have excessive iodine intake if iodized salt was consumed.

Correlation between birth defects and dietary nutrition status in a high incidence area of China.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the association between birth defects and dietary nutrient intake in a high risk area of China. METHODS: A dietary survey was performed and serum folic acid was measured in women whose pregnancy was affected by neural tube defects (NTDs) or unaffected by any birth defects (BDs) in Zhongyang and Jiaokou Counties in Shanxi Province of China. RESULTS: The local average consumption of foods including dark green vegetables, fruits, fat and meat, and nutrient intake (e.g., energy, protein, retinol, riboflavin, vitamin E, and selenium) were lower than the national average level. In women of childbearing age, these regions, the intake of nutrients was much lower than the recommended nutrient intake (9%-77%). The case-control dietary nutrition study of women whose pregnancy was affected by BDs (including NTDs and congenital heart defects) demonstrated that, in early pregnancy, adequate nutrition (i.e., eating meat, fresh vegetables, fruit more than once a week) was a protective factor, while eating germinated potatoes was a risk factor. The geometrical mean (p5-p95) of serum folic acid in women with NTD birth defects was 9.6 nmol/L (3.6, 23.03), which was significantly lower than that in normal women (14.03 nmol/L). CONCLUSION: Women of childbearing age in the two counties of Shanxi Province, China, have a marked insufficient intake of some nutrients, especially folic acid, zinc, vitamins A and B12. This nutrient deficiency may be an important risk factor for the high prevalence of birth defects in these regions. Therefore, adequate dietary nutrition in early pregnancy can prevent BDs.

[Analysis on influence factors of dietary supplement used in population aged above 45 years in Beijing].

OBJECTIVE: To explore influence factors of dietary supplement used in population aged above 45 years in Beijing. METHODS: Utilizing the data of the survey of dietary supplement (DS) used in Beijing in 2006 was to investigate the influence factors by using multi-factorial logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: All 2487 samples were included in the analysis. Sex, age, average income of each month for each member of the family, experiences of deficiency of nutrition, attitude to nutrition knowledge, attitude to the need of DS and city-or-rural resident had shown effects on DS using. The percentage of using DS in female was higher than that in male being 19.3% and 11.8% respectively. The percentage grew up as the age became older. The same trend appeared as the economic-status going up, but not as education level change. Use of DS was greater in urban population (16.9%) than in rural population (14.6%). The percentage of using DS in people who had or just been diagnosed as malnutrition/deficiency disease or chronic disease, or those who thought themselves having got these diseases only by their own feeling were higher than those did not. CONCLUSION: People the female, the elder, or those having higher income, having experiences of deficiency of nutrition, are more interested in nutrition knowledge, and more positive in need of DS and those living in rural should be the target population of nutrition education for DS use.

[Changes in the distribution of body mass index among aged children 6-17 in China from 1991 to 2006].

OBJECTIVE: To describe changes in the distribution of body mass index among Chinese children in China from 1991 to 2006. METHODS: This paper was based on data collected in the China Health and Nutrition Survey in 1991 and 2006, and the subjects were 6- 17-years-old. Tukey mean-difference plots were used to investigate the changes in the distribution of BMI within sex-age groups. RESULTS: The distribution of BMI among Chinese children in 2006 was different from that in 1991 for all sex-age groups, there was increasing positive skewness with a greater shift in the upper part of the distribution. CONCLUSION: The children in the upper part of the BMI distribution may be more susceptible to the changes of environment than those in the lower parts. So the causes for the increase in obesity should be sought in part at the population level than focusing on individuals.

[Trends and prevalence of malnutrition among children under five year-old in Chinese rural of different classes].

OBJECTIVE: To study the trends and prevalence of malnutrition status among Chinese children under 5 year-old in different type rural areas from 1992 - 2002. METHODS: The paper based on anthropometry data collected in 'National Nutrition Survey in 1992' and 'China National Nutrition and Health Survey in 2002' applied age - and sex - specific height and weight reference recommended by WHO/NCHS and analyzed data with the SAS8.2 software. RESULTS: The prevalence of stunting among children under 5 year-old in four classes rural areas were 12.4%, 15.4%, 11.5% and 29.3% respectively, the prevalence of underweight were 7.4%, 8.7%, 5.4% and 14.4%. The prevalence of moderate stunting in Chinese rural areas had decreased from 20.5% in 1992 to 12.0% in 2002, the prevalence of severe stunting fell from 14.5% to 5.2%. Compared to 1992, the prevalence of moderate underweight and severe underweight decreased 47.7% and 72.3% respectively.

[Survey on the status of dietary vitamin a intakes in Chinese residents].

OBJECTIVE: To describe the intake status of dietary vitamin A and the trends of the intakes from 1982 to 2002 in Chinese residents. METHODS: This paper was based on the data collected in "the Nutrition and Health Status of the Chinese People in 2002". The subjects in the dietary survey were 68 965 residents from 23 470 households. RESULTS: The average retinol equivalent intake in per day was 469.2 microg for per reference man. The residents with the retinol equivalent intake equal or higher than RNI accounted for 14.5% and those with the intake lower than 20% of the RNI accounted for 23.2%. The retinol equivalent intake in type III rural areas was the lowest among all the areas with only 9.7% residents having intakes equal or higher than RNI. The intakes of the retinol equivalent increased with the mounting of income level. The average retinol equivalent intake was not seen improved during the past twenty years. CONCLUSION: The dietary intake of vitamin A could be lower in Chinese residents.

[Comparison of assessment of food intakes by using 3 dietary survey methods].

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the difference and correlation of food intakes assessed by Food Weighted Record, 24 Hours Recall and Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) methods. SUBJECTS: The data of 2002 China National Nutrition and Health Survey were used. All 23,198 subjects (male 11,107, female 12,091) finished all three dietary survey methods. Food Weighted Record method weighted all food items consumed at home by all family members in last 3 days; 24 Hours Recall recorded all food items the subjects consumed at and out home in last 3 days; FFQ recorded the main 33 categories food items that the subjects consumed at and out home in last year. RESULTS: Compared to Food Weighted Record method, food intakes assessed by 24 hours recall were similar, and the relative differences were less than 10% of most food items. The proportion of over-report and under-report (+/- 25%) by 24 Hours Recall were less than 40%. The correlation coefficients of food intakes between Food Weighted Record and 24 Hours Recall methods ranged from 0.58 to 0.88. The results from Food Weighted Record and FFQ were similar among the high frequently consumed food items. The relative differences of the food intakes investigated between Food Weighted Record and FFQ were less than 15% and the proportion of over-report and under-report (+/- 25%) by FFQ were more than 50%. The correlation coefficients of food intakes between Food Weighted Record and FFQ ranged from 0.08 to 0.76. CONCLUSION: Food intakes might be assessed accurately by the Food Weighted Record revised 24 Hours Recall method, and FFQ method be also used to assess the food intakes, especially for the frequently consumed food items, as to studying the relationship between food consumption and health.

[Survey on the prevalence of hypertension in different ethnic groups in China in 2002].

OBJECTIVE: To understand the prevalence of hypertension and blood pressure level in different ethnic groups in Chinese population. METHODS: Data are presented for 67700 men and 84983 women aged more than 15 years old from National Nutrition and Health Survey, 2002. RESULTS: After being adjusted by age using Chinese population in 1964, the highest prevalence of hypertension in the male were. Tibetan (25.6%) and Manchu (23.1%). The Miao (9.2%) and Tujia (11.1%) ethnics have the lowest prevalence of hypertension. Also prevalence rate of hypertension in female in Tibetan (24.0%) and Manchu (18.7%) were the highest, and the lowest were Miao (6.1%) and Zhuang (8.3%) ethnics. The prevalence rate of hypertension in most ethnics were increased compared with that of 1991, except that of the male in Mongolian and female in Miao ethnics. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of hypertension and blood pressure level were different among ethnics. The prevalence rate of hypertension in almost all ethnics were increased during past ten years.

[Trend of distribution of body mass index among Chinese adults in some provinces from 1989 to 2000].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the trends of the distribution of body mass index(BMI) among Chinese adults in some provinces from 1989 to 2000. METHODS: This paper was based on data collected in the China Health and Nutrition Survey in 1989,1991,1993,1997 and 2000, and the subjects were 20- 45 years old healthy men and women. RESULTS: In the period of 1989 - 2000, the mean of BMI among Chinese adults was increasing from 1989 to 2000. The mean of BMI among male increased from 21.3kg/m(2) to 22.4kg/m(2). At the same time, the mean of BMI among female increased from 21.8 kg/m(2) to 22.5kg/m(2) . With the changing of the distribution of BMI among Chinese adults the prevalence of overweight and obesity increased from 1989 to 2000. The people who were elder than thirty years old had a faster increasing in BMI than younger age group. Moreover the people who lived in city suburb and town had a faster increasing than who lived in village. CONCLUSION: It is a big problem to control the changing of the distribution of BMI among Chinese adults.

[Relative factors effecting dietary quality of Chinese adults].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relative factors of dietary under and over intakes, then provide information for improving dietary quality of Chinese adults. METHODS: A Sample of 28320 adult aged 18 - 59 years who had completed 3 day dietary information and basic information were selected from 2002 National Nutrition and Health Survey. DBI - LBS (Dietary Balance Index Lower Bound Score) and DBI - HBS (Dietary Balance Index Higher Bound Score) were calculated to reflect the extent of under and over intake. Logistic multiple regression models were developed to identify factors characterizing under and over intake. Factors examined included the family characteristics and personal information. RESULTS: The main factors that effected dietary under intake were age, gender, educational level, employment, income, family number, hypertension, dyslipidemia, smoking, exercise, television viewing time, leisure reading time and domicile region, while gender, employment, income, family number, nation, diabetes, smoking, exercise, television viewing time, leisure reading time, cooking time, and domicile region were main factors that effected the dietary over intake of Chinese adults.

[Approaching Chinese diet balance index].

OBJECTIVE: To establish Chinese Diet Balance Index (DBI).; To evaluate the overall diet quality; To provide an effective measurement instrument for researchers, food and nutrition policy makers and the public. METHODS: The Dietary Guidelines for Chinese Residents motivated the selection of food-based components. The components were weighted and assigned cut-offs and point schemes based on the Chinese Food Guide Pagoda. Five scoring method are used to combine the component scores. RESULTS: 8 food-based components were selected, these are the intake of cereals, vegetable and fruit, bean and dairy, animal food, alcohol, salt, oil as well as the food variety. The scoring system including total score, lower bound score, higher bound scores, and diet quality distance can reflect both under and over intake. DBI can be used as a measurement to evaluate the dietary quality of the individual or the population.

[Measuring diet quality of chinese 18 - 59 years adult using chinese diet balance index].

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the overall diet quality of Chinese adults using Chinese Diet Balance Index and the validity of DBI. METHODS: 28320 adult aged 18 - 59 years who had completed 3 day dietary information and basic information were selected from 2002 National Nutrition and Health Survey. Diet quality were evaluated by using DBI scoring and evaluating system. RESULTS: The major problems of Chinese residents are adequate food intake and excessive food intake co-exist. dietary quality are different between urban and rural populations, the extent of lower intake and excessive intake both is higher in rural areas than in urban areas. It shows that the extent of dietary imbalance is worse and severe among rural residents. The diet quality is effected by individual education level and family income. CONCLUSIONS: Comparing with the other measurements, DBI can describe the overall dietary quality more comprehensive, be easier to find out the major problem of the dietary pattern, and describe the extend of the problem numerically.

[Study on food and antioxidant intake in smokers and non-smokers in China].

OBJECTIVE: To examine the differences in food and antioxidant vitamin intake in current non-smokers,light smokers,and heavy smokers. METHODS: 51 115 people (24 077 male, 27 038 female) aged above 15 years who had completed providing information on smoking habit and dietary intake, were selected from 2002 national health and nutrition survey. RESULTS: After adjustment for geographic areas and age, data showed the smokers ate more light vegetable and alcohol, less dark vegetable and fruit than non-smokers. Male smokers consumed more energetic stuff and macronutrients than non-smokers, but female smokers had opposite trends. Light smokers (LS) consumed less antioxidant than non-smokers (NS) after adjusted for area, age, BMI and energy, with carotene (Male LS = 1824.7 microg, NS = 1964.8 microg; Female LS = 1565.4 microg, NS = 2127.4 microg), thiamin (Male LS = 0.84 mg, NS = 0.85 mg; Female LS = 0.72 mg, NS = 0.74 mg), vitamin E (alpha) (Male LS = 9.2 mg, NS = 9.3 mg; Female LS = 7.4 mg, NS = 8.1 mg), vitamin C (Male LS = 91.2 mg, NS = 94.2 mg; Female LS = 76.9 mg, NS = 87.5 mg). CONCLUSION: Smokers had a significantly lower overall mean dietary antioxidant vitamin intake than non-smokers. Increasing the daily consumption of variety of fruits and vegetables had been recommended to reduce the risk of chronic diseases.

[Study on the current status and trend of food consumption among Chinese population].

OBJECTIVE: To describe the current status and trend of food consumption among Chinese residents. METHODS: 23,470 households including 68,962 subjects were randomly sampled from 132 counties in 31 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities. A 24-hour dietary recall method for 3 consecutive days was used to collect information on food intake, but the condiment intake was collected by weighting method. RESULTS: The average food consumption per reference man per day of Chinese people included 402 g (urban/rural: 366 g/ 416 g) cereals; 276 g (urban/rural: 252 g/ 286 g) vegetables; 45 g (urban/rural:69 g/36 g) fruits; 79 g (urban/rural: 105 g/69 g) meats; 30 g (urban/rural:45 g/24 g) fishery products; 24 g (urban/rural: 33 g/20 g) eggs; 27 g(urban/rural: 66 g/ 11 g) dairy; 16 g legume; 42 g (urban/rural:44 g/41 g) edible oil; 12 g (urban/rural: 11 g/12 g) salt; 9 g (urban/rural: 11 g/8 g) soy sauce. CONCLUSIONS: For Chinese residents, the quality of diet had been improved and consumptions of animal products, milk, and edible oil had been increased, but the consumptions of dairy and legume products intake was still low which called for improvement. The unbalance was characterized as the downward trend in cereal, vegetable and fruit consumption but significant increased in animal products and oil intake among urban people. Dietary pattern of some subjects adopted a "high energy density" diet. Double burdens from under-nutrition and over-nutrition should both be considered as problems which asked for attention by the government and researchers.