High-power frequency comb at 2 µm wavelength emitted by a Tm-doped fiber laser system.

We report on the generation of a high-power frequency comb in the 2 µm wavelength regime featuring high amplitude and phase stability with unprecedented laser parameters, combining 60 W of average power with <30 fs pulse duration. The key components of the system are a mode-locked Er:fiber laser, a coherence-preserving nonlinear broadening stage, and a high-power Tm-doped fiber chirped-pulse amplifier with subsequent nonlinear self-compression of the pulses. Phase locking of the system resulted in a phase noise of less than 320 mrad measured within the 10 Hz-30 MHz band and 30 mrad in the band from 10 Hz to 1 MHz.

Fiber chirped pulse amplifier at 2.08 µm emitting 383-fs pulses at 10 nJ and 7 MHz.

An all-polarization maintaining (PM) fiber chirped pulse amplifier system at 2.08 µm based on thulium:holmium codoped gain fibers is reported. An inhouse built oscillator emits pulses at a repetition rate of 7 MHz with a spectral full width at half-maximum (FWHM) bandwidth of 23.5 nm at 2.8 mW average output power. The pulses are temporally stretched and subsequently amplified in a double-stage amplifier setup. The stretched pulses are compressed to 383 fs by use of a Martinez-style setup at an output pulse energy of 10.2 nJ. By neglecting temporal stretching, high peak powers in a single amplifier stage led to Raman soliton formation at 2.3 µm.

Broadband mid-IR frequency comb with CdSiP2 and AgGaS2 from an Er,Tm:Ho fiber laser.

We report on the generation of a 2500 nm bandwidth frequency comb at 6.5 µm central wavelength based on critically phase-matched parametric down-conversion in the nonlinear crystal CdSiP(2) (CSP), driven by a compact Er,Tm:Ho fiber laser. The generated ultra-broadband pulses show a transform-limited duration of 2.3 optical cycles and carry up to 150 pJ of energy at a 100 MHz pulse repetition rate. For comparison, the spectrum generated in AgGaS(2) (AGS) spans from 6.2 to 7.4 µm at full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) with a pulse energy of 3 pJ. A full 3D nonlinear wave propagation code is used for optimization of the noncollinear angle, propagation direction, and crystal thickness.

All-PM coherent 2.05 µm Thulium/Holmium fiber frequency comb source at 100 MHz with up to 0.5 W average power and pulse duration down to 135 fs.

We report on a dual output all-PM fiber laser system running at 100 MHz repetition rate offering coherent broadband and narrowband pulses centered at 2.05 µm with a spectral FWHM bandwidth of 60 nm and 1.5 nm at up to 360 mW and 500 mW, respectively. The broadband pulses are compressed down to 135 fs. The multi-stage double-clad amplifier based on Tm/Ho codoping is seeded by a supercontinuum light source, spanning from around 1 µm up to 2.4 µm.

Nonlinear amplification of side-modes in frequency combs.

We investigate how suppressed modes in frequency combs are modified upon frequency doubling and self-phase modulation. We find, both experimentally and by using a simplified model, that these side-modes are amplified relative to the principal comb modes. Whereas frequency doubling increases their relative strength by 6 dB, the growth due to self-phase modulation can be much stronger and generally increases with nonlinear propagation length. Upper limits for this effect are derived in this work. This behavior has implications for high-precision calibration of spectrographs with frequency combs used for example in astronomy. For this application, Fabry-Pérot filter cavities are used to increase the mode spacing to exceed the resolution of the spectrograph. Frequency conversion and/or spectral broadening after non-perfect filtering reamplify the suppressed modes, which can lead to calibration errors.

Optical-frequency transfer over a single-span 1840 km fiber link.

To compare the increasing number of optical frequency standards, highly stable optical signals have to be transferred over continental distances. We demonstrate optical-frequency transfer over a 1840-km underground optical fiber link using a single-span stabilization. The low inherent noise introduced by the fiber allows us to reach short term instabilities expressed as the modified Allan deviation of 2×10(-15) for a gate time τ of 1 s reaching 4×10(-19) in just 100 s. We find no systematic offset between the sent and transferred frequencies within the statistical uncertainty of about 3×10(-19). The spectral noise distribution of our fiber link at low Fourier frequencies leads to a τ(-2) slope in the modified Allan deviation, which is also derived theoretically.

Optical frequency comb generation from a monolithic microresonator.

Optical frequency combs provide equidistant frequency markers in the infrared, visible and ultraviolet, and can be used to link an unknown optical frequency to a radio or microwave frequency reference. Since their inception, frequency combs have triggered substantial advances in optical frequency metrology and precision measurements and in applications such as broadband laser-based gas sensing and molecular fingerprinting. Early work generated frequency combs by intra-cavity phase modulation; subsequently, frequency combs have been generated using the comb-like mode structure of mode-locked lasers, whose repetition rate and carrier envelope phase can be stabilized. Here we report a substantially different approach to comb generation, in which equally spaced frequency markers are produced by the interaction between a continuous-wave pump laser of a known frequency with the modes of a monolithic ultra-high-Q microresonator via the Kerr nonlinearity. The intrinsically broadband nature of parametric gain makes it possible to generate discrete comb modes over a 500-nm-wide span (approximately 70 THz) around 1,550 nm without relying on any external spectral broadening. Optical-heterodyne-based measurements reveal that cascaded parametric interactions give rise to an optical frequency comb, overcoming passive cavity dispersion. The uniformity of the mode spacing has been verified to within a relative experimental precision of 7.3 x 10(-18). In contrast to femtosecond mode-locked lasers, this work represents a step towards a monolithic optical frequency comb generator, allowing considerable reduction in size, complexity and power consumption. Moreover, the approach can operate at previously unattainable repetition rates, exceeding 100 GHz, which are useful in applications where access to individual comb modes is required, such as optical waveform synthesis, high capacity telecommunications or astrophysical spectrometer calibration.

Attosecond spectroscopy in condensed matter.

Comprehensive knowledge of the dynamic behaviour of electrons in condensed-matter systems is pertinent to the development of many modern technologies, such as semiconductor and molecular electronics, optoelectronics, information processing and photovoltaics. Yet it remains challenging to probe electronic processes, many of which take place in the attosecond (1 as = 10(-18) s) regime. In contrast, atomic motion occurs on the femtosecond (1 fs = 10(-15) s) timescale and has been mapped in solids in real time using femtosecond X-ray sources. Here we extend the attosecond techniques previously used to study isolated atoms in the gas phase to observe electron motion in condensed-matter systems and on surfaces in real time. We demonstrate our ability to obtain direct time-domain access to charge dynamics with attosecond resolution by probing photoelectron emission from single-crystal tungsten. Our data reveal a delay of approximately 100 attoseconds between the emission of photoelectrons that originate from localized core states of the metal, and those that are freed from delocalized conduction-band states. These results illustrate that attosecond metrology constitutes a powerful tool for exploring not only gas-phase systems, but also fundamental electronic processes occurring on the attosecond timescale in condensed-matter systems and on surfaces.

Short temporal coherence digital holography with a femtosecond frequency comb laser for multi-level optical sectioning.

In this paper, we demonstrate how short temporal coherence digital holography with a femtosecond frequency comb laser source may be used for multi-level optical sectioning. The object shape is obtained by digitally reconstructing and processing a sequence of holograms recorded during stepwise shifting of a mirror in the reference arm. Experimental results are presented.

14 GHz visible supercontinuum generation: calibration sources for astronomical spectrographs.

We report the use of a specially designed tapered photonic crystal fiber to produce a broadband optical spectrum covering the visible spectral range. The pump source is a frequency doubled Yb fiber laser operating at a repetition rate of 14 GHz and emitting sub-5 pJ pulses. We experimentally determine the optimum core diameter and achieve a 235 nm broad spectrum. Numerical simulations are used to identify the underlying mechanisms and explain spectral features. The high repetition rate makes this system a promising candidate for precision calibration of astronomical spectrographs.

Octave spanning tunable frequency comb from a microresonator.

We report the generation of an octave-spanning optical frequency comb in a continuous wave laser pumped microresonator. The generated comb spectrum covers the wavelength range from 990 to 2170 nm without relying on additional external broadening. Continuous tunability of the generated frequency comb over more than an entire free spectral range is demonstrated. Moreover, the linewidth of individual optical comb components and its relation to the pump laser phase noise is studied. The ability to derive octave-spanning spectra from microresonator comb generators represents a key step towards f-2f self-referencing of microresonator-based optical frequency combs.

Octave-spanning supercontinuum generated in SF6-glass PCF by a 1060 nm mode-locked fibre laser delivering 20 pJ per pulse.

We report the generation of an octave-spanning supercontinuum in SF6-glass photonic crystal fiber using a diode-pumped passively mode-locked fs Yb-fiber laser oscillating at 1060 nm. The pulses (energy up to 500 pJ and duration 60 fs) were launched into a 4 cm length of PCF (core diameter 1.7 microm and zero-dispersion wavelength approximately 1060 nm). Less than 20 pJ of launched pulse energy was sufficient to generate a supercontinuum from 600 nm to 1450 nm, which represents the lowest energy so far reported for generation of an octave-spanning supercontinuum from a 1 microm pump. Since the laser pulse energy scales inversely with the repetition rate, highly compact and efficient sources based on SF6-glass PCF are likely to be especially useful for efficient spectral broadening at high repetition rates (several GHz), such as those needed for the precise calibration of astronomical spectrographs, where a frequency comb spacing >10 GHz is required for the best performance.

Broadly tunable carrier envelope phase stable optical parametric amplifier pumped by a monolithic ytterbium fiber amplifier.

In an effort to develop a robust and efficient front end for a chirped-pulse parametric amplification chain, we demonstrate a broadband difference-frequency converter driven by a monolithic femtosecond Yb-doped-fiber amplifier and emitting carrier-envelope-offset-free pulses with the energy of tens of nanojoules tunable in the wavelength range from 1200 nm to beyond 2 mum. Next to providing these seed pulses, the system enables direct optical synchronization of Nd- and Yb-doped pump lasers for subsequent parametric amplification.

Soliton-based pump-seed synchronization for few-cycle OPCPA.

We demonstrate a significant simplification of the scheme for few-cycle Optical Parametric Chirped Pulse Amplification (OPCPA) which results in the elimination of a picosecond's master oscillator and electronic synchronization loops. A fraction of a broadband seed pulse centered at 760 nm from a 70-MHz Ti:sapphire oscillator was frequency-shifted in a photonic crystal fiber to enable synchronized seeding of a picosecond's Nd:YAG pump laser. The seed radiation at 1064 nm is produced in the soliton regime which makes it inherently more intense and stable in comparison with other methods of frequency conversion. The remaining fraction of the Ti:sapphire output is amplified with a FWHM bandwidth of 250 nm in a single timing-jitter-free OPCPA stage. Our work opens up the exciting possibility to use sub-picosecond's pump pulses from highly efficient Yb-based amplifiers for jitter-less parametric amplification of carrier-envelope phase stabilized pulses from Ti:sapphire oscillators.

Enhanced visualization of choroidal vessels using ultrahigh resolution ophthalmic OCT at 1050 nm.

In this article the ability of ultrahigh resolution ophthalmic optical coherence tomography (OCT) to image small choroidal blood vessels below the highly reflective and absorbing retinal pigment epithelium is demonstrated for the first time. A new light source (lambdac= 1050 nm, Deltalambda = 165 nm, Pout= 10 mW), based on a photonic crystal fiber pumped by a compact, self-starting Ti:Al2O3 laser has therefore been developed. Ex-vivo ultrahigh resolution OCT images of freshly excised pig retinas acquired with this light source demonstrate enhanced penetration into the choroid and better visualization of choroidal vessels as compared to tomograms acquired with a state-of-the art Ti:Al2O3 laser (Femtolasers Compact Pro, lc= 780 nm, Deltalambda= 160 nm, Pout= 400 mW), normally used in clinical studies for in vivo ultrahigh resolution ophthalmic OCT imaging. These results were also compared with retinal tomograms acquired with a novel, spectrally broadened fiber laser (MenloSystems, lambdac= 1350 nm, Deltalambda= 470 nm, Pout = 4 mW) permitting even greater penetration in the choroid. Due to high water absorption at longer wavelengths retinal OCT imaging at ~1300 nm may find applications in animal ophthalmic studies. Detection and follow-up of choroidal neovascularization improves early diagnosis of many retinal pathologies, e.g. age-related macular degeneration or diabetic retinopathy and can aid development of novel therapy approaches.

Phase coherent vacuum-ultraviolet to radio frequency comparison with a mode-locked laser

We demonstrate a versatile new technique that provides a phase coherent link between optical frequencies and the radio frequency domain. The regularly spaced comb of modes of a mode-locked femtosecond laser is used as a precise ruler to measure a large frequency gap between two different multiples (harmonics or subharmonics) of a laser frequency. In this way, we have determined a new value of the hydrogen 1S-2S two-photon resonance, f(1S-2S) = 2 466 061 413 187.29(37) kHz, representing now the most accurate measurement of an optical frequency.

Optical frequency synthesizer for precision spectroscopy

We have used the frequency comb generated by a femtosecond mode-locked laser and broadened to more than an optical octave in a photonic crystal fiber to realize a frequency chain that links a 10 MHz radio frequency reference phase-coherently in one step to the optical region. By comparison with a similar frequency chain we set an upper limit for the uncertainty of this new approach to 5. 1x10(-16). This opens the door for measurement and synthesis of virtually any optical frequency and is ready to revolutionize frequency metrology.

Controlling the phase evolution of few-cycle light pulses

Using a coherent nonlinear optical technique, slipping of the carrier through the envelope of 6-fs light wave packets emitted from a mode-locked-oscillator/pulse-compressor system has been measured, permitting the generation of intense, few-cycle light with precisely reproducible electric and magnetic fields. These pulses open the way to controlling the evolution of strong-field interactions on the time scale of the light oscillation cycle and are indispensable to reproducible attosecond x-ray pulse generation.

Direct link between microwave and optical frequencies with a 300 THz femtosecond laser comb

We demonstrate a great simplification in the long-standing problem of measuring optical frequencies in terms of the cesium primary standard. An air-silica microstructure optical fiber broadens the frequency comb of a femtosecond laser to span the optical octave from 1064 to 532 nm, enabling us to measure the 282 THz frequency of an iodine-stabilized Nd:YAG laser directly in terms of the microwave frequency that controls the comb spacing. Additional measurements of established optical frequencies at 633 and 778 nm using the same femtosecond comb confirm the accepted uncertainties for these standards.

Measurement of the hydrogen 1S- 2S transition frequency by phase coherent comparison with a microwave cesium fountain clock

We report on an absolute frequency measurement of the hydrogen 1S-2S two-photon transition in a cold atomic beam with an accuracy of 1.8 parts in 10(14). Our experimental result of 2 466 061 413 187 103(46) Hz has been obtained by phase coherent comparison of the hydrogen transition frequency with an atomic cesium fountain clock. Both frequencies are linked with a comb of laser frequencies emitted by a mode locked laser.